Wikipedia gpewiki https://gpe.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page MediaWiki 1.45.0-wmf.7 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikipedia Wikipedia talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Event Event talk 0 15650 67264 67014 2025-06-30T00:43:47Z 154.161.247.245 Added more information to the History section 67264 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for Lake Success, New York. Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist Edmund Chester make. Dem move go di permanent United Nations Headquarters for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear Yasser Arafat, di General Assembly plan dema 43rd meeting for Palace of Nations, for Geneva, Switzerland. == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits.[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] qbawugu278873emzif3i5hppud6ecte 67265 67264 2025-06-30T00:46:05Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Readjusted the History section 67265 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits.[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] oj6kxtcm1f9i8wrb173ddfs0ckn16z7 67266 67265 2025-06-30T00:46:48Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Added more information to the History section 67266 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for Lake Success, New York. Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist Edmund Chester make. Dem move go di permanent United Nations Headquarters for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear Yasser Arafat, di General Assembly plan dema 43rd meeting for Palace of Nations, for Geneva, Switzerland. == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits.[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] dg9va6ncako12y8x1jiufviu19316qk 67267 67266 2025-06-30T00:49:42Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Added Reference Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022. 67267 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for [[:en:Lake_Success,_New_York|Lake Success, New York]].<ref>Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). [https://www.nytimes.com/1951/05/19/archives/un-vacates-site-at-lake-success-peace-building-back-to-war-output.html "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"]. ''The New York Times''. ISSN 0362-4331. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</ref> Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist Edmund Chester make. Dem move go di permanent United Nations Headquarters for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear Yasser Arafat, di General Assembly plan dema 43rd meeting for Palace of Nations, for Geneva, Switzerland. == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits.[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] sng9xwk6pkw47oowukfrpw8btvmpxyt 67268 67267 2025-06-30T00:51:34Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Added Referece Druckman, Bella (19 May 2021). "The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success". Untapped New York. Archived from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2023. 67268 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for [[:en:Lake_Success,_New_York|Lake Success, New York]].<ref>Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). [https://www.nytimes.com/1951/05/19/archives/un-vacates-site-at-lake-success-peace-building-back-to-war-output.html "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"]. ''The New York Times''. ISSN 0362-4331. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</ref><ref>Druckman, Bella (19 May 2021). [https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ "The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success"]. ''Untapped New York''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</ref> Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist Edmund Chester make. Dem move go di permanent United Nations Headquarters for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear Yasser Arafat, di General Assembly plan dema 43rd meeting for Palace of Nations, for Geneva, Switzerland. == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits.[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] ofp9is5rq79irxu67gzlqh87sgbebof 67270 67268 2025-06-30T00:55:39Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Linked wikipedia pages to this article 67270 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for [[:en:Lake_Success,_New_York|Lake Success, New York]].<ref>Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). [https://www.nytimes.com/1951/05/19/archives/un-vacates-site-at-lake-success-peace-building-back-to-war-output.html "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"]. ''The New York Times''. ISSN 0362-4331. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</ref><ref>Druckman, Bella (19 May 2021). [https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ "The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success"]. ''Untapped New York''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</ref> Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist [[:en:Edmund_Chester|Edmund Chester]] make. Dem move go di permanent [[:en:Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations|United Nations Headquarters]] for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear [[:en:Yasser_Arafat|Yasser Arafat]], di General Assembly plan dema 43rd meeting for Palace of Nations, for Geneva, Switzerland. == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits.[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] dxr2ds3rlyudpyj3433vjz7e0diiieg 67271 67270 2025-06-30T00:57:07Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Linked wikipedia pages to this article 67271 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for [[:en:Lake_Success,_New_York|Lake Success, New York]].<ref>Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). [https://www.nytimes.com/1951/05/19/archives/un-vacates-site-at-lake-success-peace-building-back-to-war-output.html "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"]. ''The New York Times''. ISSN 0362-4331. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</ref><ref>Druckman, Bella (19 May 2021). [https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ "The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success"]. ''Untapped New York''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</ref> Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist [[:en:Edmund_Chester|Edmund Chester]] make. Dem move go di permanent [[:en:Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations|United Nations Headquarters]] for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear [[:en:Yasser_Arafat|Yasser Arafat]], di General Assembly plan dema 43rd meeting for [[:en:Palace_of_Nations|Palace of Nations]], for [[:en:Geneva|Geneva]], [[:en:Switzerland|Switzerland]]. == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits.[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] d5jseb2ouu1t53ovtxsrfhszscsyjuy 67272 67271 2025-06-30T01:01:13Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Added Reference (in French) "Genève renoue avec sa tradition de ville de paix, Le Temps, 16 January 2014. Archived 16 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine". 67272 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for [[:en:Lake_Success,_New_York|Lake Success, New York]].<ref>Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). [https://www.nytimes.com/1951/05/19/archives/un-vacates-site-at-lake-success-peace-building-back-to-war-output.html "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"]. ''The New York Times''. ISSN 0362-4331. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</ref><ref>Druckman, Bella (19 May 2021). [https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ "The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success"]. ''Untapped New York''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</ref> Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist [[:en:Edmund_Chester|Edmund Chester]] make. Dem move go di permanent [[:en:Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations|United Nations Headquarters]] for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear [[:en:Yasser_Arafat|Yasser Arafat]], di General Assembly plan dema 43rd meeting for [[:en:Palace_of_Nations|Palace of Nations]], for [[:en:Geneva|Geneva]], [[:en:Switzerland|Switzerland]].<ref>(in French) [https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix "Genève renoue avec sa tradition de ville de paix], ''[[:en:Le_Temps|Le Temps]]'', 16 January 2014. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220416124704/https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix Archived] 16 April 2022 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]".</ref> == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits.[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] rmbunio6n4rt7le5f9fqbu0u8094b5g 67275 67272 2025-06-30T01:07:32Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Made spelling corrections 67275 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for [[:en:Lake_Success,_New_York|Lake Success, New York]].<ref>Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). [https://www.nytimes.com/1951/05/19/archives/un-vacates-site-at-lake-success-peace-building-back-to-war-output.html "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"]. ''The New York Times''. ISSN 0362-4331. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</ref><ref>Druckman, Bella (19 May 2021). [https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ "The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success"]. ''Untapped New York''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</ref> Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist [[:en:Edmund_Chester|Edmund Chester]] make. Dem move go di permanent [[:en:Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations|United Nations Headquarters]] for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear [[:en:Yasser_Arafat|Yasser Arafat]], di General Assembly plan dema 43^rd meeting for [[:en:Palace_of_Nations|Palace of Nations]], for [[:en:Geneva|Geneva]], [[:en:Switzerland|Switzerland]].<ref>(in French) [https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix "Genève renoue avec sa tradition de ville de paix], ''[[:en:Le_Temps|Le Temps]]'', 16 January 2014. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220416124704/https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix Archived] 16 April 2022 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]".</ref> == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits.[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] nhesszsj7uuywjmuxurb8peocaomnrm 67276 67275 2025-06-30T01:11:13Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Added Agenda title section 67276 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for [[:en:Lake_Success,_New_York|Lake Success, New York]].<ref>Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). [https://www.nytimes.com/1951/05/19/archives/un-vacates-site-at-lake-success-peace-building-back-to-war-output.html "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"]. ''The New York Times''. ISSN 0362-4331. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</ref><ref>Druckman, Bella (19 May 2021). [https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ "The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success"]. ''Untapped New York''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</ref> Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist [[:en:Edmund_Chester|Edmund Chester]] make. Dem move go di permanent [[:en:Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations|United Nations Headquarters]] for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear [[:en:Yasser_Arafat|Yasser Arafat]], di General Assembly plan dema 43^rd meeting for [[:en:Palace_of_Nations|Palace of Nations]], for [[:en:Geneva|Geneva]], [[:en:Switzerland|Switzerland]].<ref>(in French) [https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix "Genève renoue avec sa tradition de ville de paix], ''[[:en:Le_Temps|Le Temps]]'', 16 January 2014. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220416124704/https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix Archived] 16 April 2022 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]".</ref> == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits. == Agenda == [[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] h800qscifrgzeg08d6itf52fkiffpll 67282 67276 2025-06-30T01:20:07Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Added information to the Agenda section of the page and as well added references 67282 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions. E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security. == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for [[:en:Lake_Success,_New_York|Lake Success, New York]].<ref>Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). [https://www.nytimes.com/1951/05/19/archives/un-vacates-site-at-lake-success-peace-building-back-to-war-output.html "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"]. ''The New York Times''. ISSN 0362-4331. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</ref><ref>Druckman, Bella (19 May 2021). [https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ "The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success"]. ''Untapped New York''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</ref> Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist [[:en:Edmund_Chester|Edmund Chester]] make. Dem move go di permanent [[:en:Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations|United Nations Headquarters]] for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear [[:en:Yasser_Arafat|Yasser Arafat]], di General Assembly plan dema 43^rd meeting for [[:en:Palace_of_Nations|Palace of Nations]], for [[:en:Geneva|Geneva]], [[:en:Switzerland|Switzerland]].<ref>(in French) [https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix "Genève renoue avec sa tradition de ville de paix], ''[[:en:Le_Temps|Le Temps]]'', 16 January 2014. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220416124704/https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix Archived] 16 April 2022 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]".</ref> == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits. == Agenda == De plan wey dem dey take do each session, dem dey fix am like seven months before, and e dey start wit one first list of tings wey dem go put for di temporary agenda.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131021004337/http://www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/gasess.htm "Introduction - UN Documentation: General Assembly"]. United Nations Research Guides and Resources at United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld Library. Archived from [https://www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/gasess.htm#gaagen the original] on 21 October 2013.</ref> Dem go polish dis list into proper temporary agenda 60 days before di session open. When di session start, dem go take di final agenda for one big meeting wey dem call plenary, wey go share di work give different main committees, and dem committees go bring report come back give di Assembly make dem take am by everybody agreeing or by voting. Di tings wey dey di agenda, dem get numbers. Normal plenary meetings for di General Assembly for recent years, dem bin plan say e go take just three months; but sake of plenty work, dem dey stretch di meetings till e nearly reach di next session. Di normal parts of di sessions dey start on "di Tuesday for di third week for September, counting from di first week wey get at least one working day," as di UN Rules of Procedure talk.<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/ropga/sessions.shtml "Sessions, Rules of Procedure"]. ''General Assembly of the United Nations''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181106213735/https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/ropga/sessions.shtml Archived] from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 29 June 2017.</ref> Di last two of dis normal sessions, dem bin plan say dem go rest after three months<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121102210630/https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/ga10859.doc.htm "General Assembly Adopts Work Programme for Sixty-Fourth Session"]. ''UN General Assembly''. Archived from [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/ga10859.doc.htm the original] on 2 November 2012.</ref> for early December, but dem start again for January and stretch am till just before di next sessions go start.<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/ga/64/meetings/index.shtml#sep10 "High-level meetings of the 64th Session"], General Assembly of the UN. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180726044220/https://www.un.org/en/ga/64/meetings/index.shtml#sep10 Archived] 26 July 2018 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]].</ref>[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] gq4qv9pda8e3ciwgd9yk7q0kihjpbax 67284 67282 2025-06-30T01:24:56Z Jephtah Ogyefo Acquah 2566 Added references to the first page 67284 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} De '''United Nations General Assembly''' ('''UNGA''' anaa '''GA'''; French: ''Assemblée générale des Nations Unies'',<ref>{{Cite web|date=18 April 2025|title=Assemblée générale des Nations Unies|url=https://www.un.org/fr/ga/|access-date=18 April 2025}}</ref> AGNU anaa AG) be one of de six principal organs of de United Nations (UN), wey dey serve as ein main deliberative, policymaking, den representative organ. Currently insyd ein 79th session, ein powers, composition, functions, den procedures be set out insyd Chapter IV of de United Nations Charter. De UNGA be responsible for de UN budget, wey dey appoint de non-permanent members to de Security Council, wey dey appoint de UN secretary-general, wey dey receive reports from oda parts of de UN system, den dey make recommendations thru resolutions.<ref>[https://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/chapter4.htm Charter of the United Nations: Chapter IV] [https://web.archive.org/web/20071012044607/http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/chapter4.htm Archived] 12 October 2007 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]. United Nations.</ref> E sanso dey establish chaw subsidiary organs make e advance anaa assist insyd ein broad mandate.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly|url=https://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715035834/http://www.un.org/ga/subsidiary.shtml|archive-date=Jul 15, 2018|website=United Nations General Assembly}}</ref> De UNGA be de UN organ per wer all member states get equal representation. De General Assembly dey meet under ein presido anaa de UN secretary-general insyd annual sessions for de General Assembly Building, within de UN headquarters insyd New York City. De primary phase of dese meetings generally dey run from September thru part of January til all issues be addressed, wich often be before de next session start.<ref>{{Cite web|last=United Nations Official Document|title=The annual session convenes on Tuesday of the third week in September per Resolution 57/301, Para. 1. The opening debate begins the following Tuesday|url=http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200523100514/https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/INF/70/1|archive-date=23 May 2020|access-date=13 September 2016|website=United Nations}}</ref> E sanso fi reconvene for special den emergency special sessions. Na dem convene de first session on 10 January 1946 insyd de Methodist Central Hall insyd London wey be included representatives of de 51 founding nations. Chaw questions be decided insyd de General Assembly by a simple majority. Each member country get one vote. Voting for certain important questions—namely recommendations on peace den security; budgetary concerns; den de election, admission, suspension, anaa expulsion of members—be by a two-thirds majority of those wey be present den dey vote. Apart from de approval of budgetary matters, wey dey include de adoption of a scale of assessment, Assembly resolutions no be binding for de members dema top. De Assembly fi make recommendations for any matters top within de scope of de UN, except matters of peace den security under de Security Council ein consideration. Although na de resolutions wey be passed by de General Assembly no get binding forces over de member nations (apart from budgetary measures), pursuant to ein Uniting for Peace resolution of November 1950 (resolution 377 (V)), de Assembly sanso fi take action if de Security Council fail make e act, dey owe to de negative vote of a permanent member, insyd a case wer der dey appear to be a threat to de peace, breach of de peace anaa act of aggression. De Assembly fi consider de matter immediately plus a view to make dem make recommendations to Members for collective measures to maintain anaa restore international peace den security.<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml General Assembly of the United Nations] [https://web.archive.org/web/20180329222658/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml Archived] 29 March 2018 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]. United Nations. Retrieved 12 July 2013.</ref> == Ein History == The first meeting of the UN General Assembly happen for 10 January 1946 inside [[:en:Methodist_Central_Hall,_Westminster|Methodist Central Hall]] for [[:en:London|London]]. For there, representatives from 51 countries come gather.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml "History of United Nations 1941 – 1950"]. United Nations. Archived from [https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml the original] on 12 March 2015. Retrieved 12 March 2015.</ref> After dat, before dem go settle for good for Manhattan in 1951, de Assembly bin dey meet for di old [[:en:Queens_Museum#Building_history|New York City Pavilion]] from di [[:en:1939_New_York_World's_Fair|1939 New York World's Fair]] for [[:en:Flushing,_New_York|Flushing , New York]].<ref>[http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ "Queens Public Library Digital"]. ''digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221210042536/http://digitalarchives.queenslibrary.org/ Archived] from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> On November 29.1947, dem Assembly people vote say dem go take di [[:en:United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine|United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine]] for dat same place.<ref>[https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition "United Nations, Queens: A Local History of the 1947 Israel-Palestine Partition"]. ''The Center for the Humanities''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221206092505/https://centerforthehumanities.org/programming/united-nations-queens-a-local-history-of-the-1947-israel-palestine-partition Archived] from the original on 6 December 2022. Retrieved 6 December 2022.</ref> For 1946 to 1951, di General Assembly, Security Council, and Economic Social Council bin dey hold dema meetings for di United Nations temporary head office for [[:en:Lake_Success,_New_York|Lake Success, New York]].<ref>Rosenthal, A. M. (19 May 1951). [https://www.nytimes.com/1951/05/19/archives/un-vacates-site-at-lake-success-peace-building-back-to-war-output.html "U.N. Vacates Site at Lake Success; Peace Building Back to War Output"]. ''The New York Times''. ISSN 0362-4331. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 26 July 2022.</ref><ref>Druckman, Bella (19 May 2021). [https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ "The United Nations Headquarters in Long Island's Lake Success"]. ''Untapped New York''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20210519170543/https://untappedcities.com/2021/05/19/united-nations-lake-success/ Archived] from the original on 19 May 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2023.</ref> Around dat time for 1949, CBS Television network bin show live pictures of dem meetings for dema United Nations in Action program wey di journalist [[:en:Edmund_Chester|Edmund Chester]] make. Dem move go di permanent [[:en:Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations|United Nations Headquarters]] for New York City when dem start dema seventh normal yearly meeting, on 14 October 1952. For December 1988, sake of dem wan hear [[:en:Yasser_Arafat|Yasser Arafat]], di General Assembly plan dema 43^rd meeting for [[:en:Palace_of_Nations|Palace of Nations]], for [[:en:Geneva|Geneva]], [[:en:Switzerland|Switzerland]].<ref>(in French) [https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix "Genève renoue avec sa tradition de ville de paix], ''[[:en:Le_Temps|Le Temps]]'', 16 January 2014. [https://web.archive.org/web/20220416124704/https://www.letemps.ch/suisse/geneve-renoue-tradition-ville-paix Archived] 16 April 2022 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]]".</ref> == Membership == ''Main talk: [[:en:Member_states_of_the_United_Nations|Countries wey dey inside United Nations]]'' All di 193 countries wey dey for United Nations, dem all dey inside di General Assembly, plus [[:en:Holy_See|Holy See]] and [[:en:Palestine|Palestine]] wey be observer states, and European Union too (since 1974). On top, di United Nations General Assembly fit give [[:en:United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers|observer status]] give any international group or people, wey go make dem fit join di work wey General Assembly dey do, but dem get some limits. == Agenda == De plan wey dem dey take do each session, dem dey fix am like seven months before, and e dey start wit one first list of tings wey dem go put for di temporary agenda.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131021004337/http://www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/gasess.htm "Introduction - UN Documentation: General Assembly"]. United Nations Research Guides and Resources at United Nations Dag Hammarskjöld Library. Archived from [https://www.un.org/Depts/dhl/resguide/gasess.htm#gaagen the original] on 21 October 2013.</ref> Dem go polish dis list into proper temporary agenda 60 days before di session open. When di session start, dem go take di final agenda for one big meeting wey dem call plenary, wey go share di work give different main committees, and dem committees go bring report come back give di Assembly make dem take am by everybody agreeing or by voting. Di tings wey dey di agenda, dem get numbers. Normal plenary meetings for di General Assembly for recent years, dem bin plan say e go take just three months; but sake of plenty work, dem dey stretch di meetings till e nearly reach di next session. Di normal parts of di sessions dey start on "di Tuesday for di third week for September, counting from di first week wey get at least one working day," as di UN Rules of Procedure talk.<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/ropga/sessions.shtml "Sessions, Rules of Procedure"]. ''General Assembly of the United Nations''. [https://web.archive.org/web/20181106213735/https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/ropga/sessions.shtml Archived] from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 29 June 2017.</ref> Di last two of dis normal sessions, dem bin plan say dem go rest after three months<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121102210630/https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/ga10859.doc.htm "General Assembly Adopts Work Programme for Sixty-Fourth Session"]. ''UN General Assembly''. Archived from [https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2009/ga10859.doc.htm the original] on 2 November 2012.</ref> for early December, but dem start again for January and stretch am till just before di next sessions go start.<ref>[https://www.un.org/en/ga/64/meetings/index.shtml#sep10 "High-level meetings of the 64th Session"], General Assembly of the UN. [https://web.archive.org/web/20180726044220/https://www.un.org/en/ga/64/meetings/index.shtml#sep10 Archived] 26 July 2018 at the [[:en:Wayback_Machine|Wayback Machine]].</ref>[[File:Methodist.central.hall.london.arp.jpg|thumb|Methodist Central Hall, London, de location of de first meeting of de United Nations General Assembly insyd 1946<ref name="UN_hist_1941">{{Cite web|title=History of United Nations 1941 – 1950|url=https://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150312020304/http://www.un.org/en/aboutun/history/1941-1950.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2015|access-date=12 March 2015|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>]] == Subsidiary organs == === Commissions === Der be six commissions:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Commissions |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=17 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117022710/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/commissions.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> *United Nations Disarmament Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 502 (VI) den S-10/2 *International Civil Service Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 3357 (XXIX) *International Law Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 174 (II) *United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), dem establish by GA Resolution 2205 (XXI) *United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine, dem establish by GA Resolution 194 (III) *United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, dem establish by GA Resolution 60/180 den UN Security Council Resolutions 1645 (2005) den 1646 (2005) Despite ein name, na de former United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) actually be a subsidiary body of United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). === Boards === Der be seven boards wich dem categorize into two groups: a) Executive Boards den b) Boards<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Boards |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022172240/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/boards.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> ==== Executive Boards ==== #Executive Board of de United Nations Children's Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 57 (I) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de United Nations Development Programme den of de United Nations Population Fund, dem establish by GA Resolution 2029 (XX) den 48/162 #Executive Board of de World Food Programme, dem establish by GA Resolution 50/8 ==== Boards ==== #Board of Auditors, dem establish by GA Resolution 74 (I) #Trade and Development Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 1995 (XIX) #United Nations Joint Staff Pension Board, dem establish by GA Resolution 248 (III) #Advisory Board on Disarmament Matters, dem establish by GA Resolution 37/99 K === Councils den panels === De newest council be de United Nations Human Rights Council, wich replace de aforementioned UNCHR insyd March 2006. Der be a total of four councils den one panel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Assemblies and Councils |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=22 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022154303/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/councils.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> === Working Groups den oda === Der be a varied group of working groups den oda subsidiary bodies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |title=Subsidiary Organs of the General Assembly: Working Groups |website=United Nations General Assembly |publisher=United Nations |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=31 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031141922/http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/subsidiary/other.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> == Seating == Countries be seated alphabetically insyd de General Assembly according to English translations of de countries ein names. De country wey occupies de front-most left position be determined annually by de secretary-general via ballot draw. De remaining countries follow alphabetically after it. == Reform and UNPA == Main article: ''Reform of'' ''de United Nations'' Sanso see: ''United Nations Parliamentary Assembly'' On 21 March 2005, Secretary-General Kofi Annan dey present a report, ''Insyd Larger Freedom'', dat criticized de General Assembly for focusing so much on consensus dat e be passing watered-down resolutions reflecting "de lowest common denominator of widely different opinions." He sanso criticize de Assembly for trying to address too broad an agenda, instead of focusing on "de major substantive issues of de day, such as international migration den de long-debated comprehensive convention on terrorism." Annan recommended streamlining de General Assembly ein agenda, committee structure, den procedures; strengthening de role den authority of ein president; enhancing de role of civil society; den establishing a mechanism to review de decisions of ein committees, insyd oda to minimize unfunded mandates den micromanagement of de United Nations Secretariat. Annan reminded UN members of demma responsibility to implement reforms, if they expect to realize improvements insyd UN effectiveness. De reform proposals be not taken up by de United Nations World Summit insyd September 2005. Instead, de Summit solely affirmed de central position of de General Assembly as de chief deliberative, policymaking den representative organ of de United Nations, as well as de advisory role of de Assembly insyd de process of standard-setting den de codification of international law. De Summit sanso dey call for strengthening de relationship between de General Assembly den de oda principal organs to ensure better coordination on topical issues dat require coordinated action by de United Nations, insyd accordance plus demma respective mandates. A United Nations Parliamentary Assembly, or United Nations People's Assembly (UNPA), be a proposed addition to de United Nations System dat eventually can allow for direct election of UN parliament members by citizens all over de world. Insyd de General Debate of de 65th General Assembly, Jorge Valero, representing Venezuela, say "De United Nations has exhausted ein model den e be not simply a matter of proceeding plus reform, de twenty-first century demands deep changes dat be only possible plus a rebuilding of dis organisation." He point to de futility of resolutions concerning de Cuban embargo den de Middle East conflict as reasons for de UN model having failed. Venezuela sanso call for de suspension of veto rights insyd de Security Council because e be a "remnant of de Second World War [e] be incompatible plus de principle of sovereign equality of States." Reform of de United Nations General Assembly wey include proposals to change de powers den composition of de U.N. General Assembly. Dis can include, for example, tasking de Assembly plus evaluating how well member states implement UNGA resolutions, wey increase de power of de assembly vis-à-vis de United Nations Security Council, or making debates more constructive den less repetitive. De U.N. General Assembly approved de "Pact for de Future," a plan to address global challenges including climate change, AI regulation, inequality, den conflicts. E dey call for reforms to de Security Council, nuclear disarmament, den greater inclusion of youth den women insyd decision-making. U.N. Secretary-General Guterres urged leaders to act on these commitments. == Sidelines of de General Assembly == De annual session of de United Nations General Assembly be accompanied by independent meetings between world leaders, better known as meetings taking place on de ''sidelines'' of de Assembly meeting. De diplomatic congregation has sanso since evolved into a week attracting wealthy den influential individuals from around de world to New York City to address various agendas, ranging from humanitarian den environmental to business den political. == Sanso see == * History of the United Nations * List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations * Reform of the United Nations * United Nations Interpretation Service * United Nations System * PassBlue == References == <references /> == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q47423|c=Category:United Nations General Assembly|n=Category:United Nations General Assembly|q=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Category:United Nations General Assembly|wikt=no|species=no}} *[https://www.un.org/ga United Nations General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast/ga.html Webcast archive for the UN General Assembly] **[https://www.un.org/webcast Subsection of the overall UN webcast site] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/1 Verbatim record of the 1st session of the UN General Assembly, Jan. 1946] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080302195522/http://www.undemocracy.com/ UN Democracy: hyper linked transcripts of the United Nations General Assembly and the Security Council] *[http://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/ UN General Assembly – Documentation Research Guide] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080704085839/http://www.cfr.org/publication/13490/ Council on Foreign Relations: The Role of the UN General Assembly] {{Authority control}} [[Category:United Nations General Assembly| ]] [[Category:United Nations organs]] [[Category:Organizations dem establish insyd 1945]] [[Category:1945 establishments insyd New York City]] [[Category:Articles containing Russian-language text]] b70xiio0eotnhutywzniddhf7gqmhti 0 15651 67154 66322 2025-06-29T17:54:56Z Baway94 2558 i take info choke 67154 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg|thumb|Reproduction of a handbill wey dey advertise a slave auction insyd Charleston, British Province of South Carolina, insyd 1769]] Na de '''Atlantic slave trade''' anaa '''transatlantic slave trade''' involve de transportation by slave traders of [[Slavery in Africa|enslaved African people]] to de Americas. Na European slave ships regularly use de triangular trade route den ein Middle Passage. Na Europeans establish a coastal slave trade insyd de 15th century den trade to de Americas begin insyd de 16th century, wey dey last thru de 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Diffie|first=Bailey|title=Prelude to Empire: Portugal Overseas Before Henry the Navigator|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=1963|pages=58}}</ref> Na de vast majority of those wey be transported insyd de transatlantic slave trade komot [[Central Africa]] den [[West Africa]] wey na dem be sold by West African slave traders to European slave traders,[3] while na dem capture odas directly by de slave traders insyd coastal raids.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zy7fr82/revision/3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716004107/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zy7fr82/revision/3|archive-date=16 July 2020|access-date=6 May 2021|publisher=BBC|quote=* Some of those enslaved were captured directly by the European slave traders. Enslavers ambushed and captured local people in Africa. Most slave ships used European "factors", men who lived full-time in Africa and bought enslaved people from local leaders.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Exchanging People for Trade Goods|url=https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histContextsB.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215214335/https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histContextsB.htm|archive-date=15 December 2022|access-date=12 January 2024|website=African American Heritage and Ethnography|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> Na European slave traders gather den imprison de enslaved at forts for de African coast wey dem bring dem to de Americas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Implications of the slave trade for African societies|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zxt3gk7/revision/7|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717094706/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zxt3gk7/revision/7|archive-date=17 July 2020|access-date=12 June 2020|publisher=BBC|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=West Africa – National Museums Liverpool|url=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/history-of-slavery/west-africa#section--the-capture-and-sale-of-enslaved-africans|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126155135/https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/history-of-slavery/west-africa|archive-date=26 November 2020|access-date=14 October 2015|publisher=International Slavery Museum|location=Liverpool}}</ref> Na sam Portuguese den Europeans participate insyd slave raids. As de National Museums Liverpool dey explain: "Na European traders capture sam Africans insyd raids along de coast, buh dem buy chaw of dem from local African anaa African-European dealers."<ref>{{Cite web|title=The capture and sale of enslaved Africans|url=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/history-of-slavery/west-africa|url-status=live|access-date=15 August 2024|website=National Museums Liverpool}}</ref> Na chaw European slave traders generally no participate insyd slave raids secof na life expectancy give Europeans insyd sub-Saharan Africa be less dan one year during de period of de slave trade secof [[malaria]] wey na e be endemic insyd de African continent.<ref name="Malaria and French Imperialism">{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=William |date=1983 |title=Malaria and French Imperialism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181856 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=23–36 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700021502 |jstor=181856 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429141741/https://www.jstor.org/stable/181856 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |access-date=29 April 2024}}</ref> Na Portuguese coastal raiders find say na [[slave raiding]] be too costly den often ineffective wey dem opt for established commercial relations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade|url=https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/trans_atlantic_slave_trade|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240627115650/https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/trans_atlantic_slave_trade|archive-date=27 June 2024|access-date=28 April 2024|website=Lowcountry Digital History Initiative|publisher=College of Charleston}}</ref> Na de colonial South Atlantic den Caribbean economies be particularly dependent for slave labour top for de production of sugarcane den oda commodities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rise and Fall of King Sugar|url=https://www.natt.gov.tt/sites/default/files/pdfs/The-Rise-and-Fall-of-King-Sugar.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240625094400/http://natt.gov.tt/sites/default/files/pdfs/The-Rise-and-Fall-of-King-Sugar.pdf|archive-date=25 June 2024|access-date=24 January 2024|website=National Archives of Trinidad and Tobago}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sugar Plantations|url=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/archaeologyofslavery/sugar-plantations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127075115/https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/archaeologyofslavery/sugar-plantations|archive-date=27 January 2024|access-date=24 January 2024|website=National Museums Liverpool}}</ref> Na dis be viewed as crucial by those Western European states wich na dem dey vie plus one anoda make dem create overseas empires.<ref name="Mannix 1962 Introduction-1–5">{{Cite book|last=Mannix|first=Daniel|url=https://archive.org/details/blackcargoeshist00mann|title=Black Cargoes|publisher=The Viking Press|year=1962|pages=Introduction–1–5|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ives Bortolot|first=Alexander|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117150911/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|archive-date=17 January 2024|access-date=17 January 2024|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University}}</ref> Na de Portuguese, insyd de 16th century, be de first make dem transport slaves across de Atlantic. Insyd 1526, na dem plete de first transatlantic slave voyage to [[Brazil]], den oda Europeans soon follow.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Weber|first=Greta|date=5 June 2015|title=Shipwreck Shines Light on Historic Shift in Slave Trade|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150605-shipwreck-slave-trade-south-africa-18th-century-brazil|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607030319/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150605-shipwreck-slave-trade-south-africa-18th-century-brazil/|archive-date=7 June 2015|access-date=8 June 2015|publisher=National Geographic Society}}</ref> Na shipowners regard de slaves as cargo make dem be transported to de Americas as quickly den cheaply as possible,<ref name="Mannix 1962 Introduction-1–5" /> for der make dem sell dem make work for coffee, tobacco, cocoa, sugar, den cotton plantations, gold den silver mines, rice fields, de construction industry, cutting timber for ships, as skilled labour, den as domestic servants.<ref name="Covey-Eisnach 2009">{{Cite book|title=What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-313-37497-5|editor-last=Covey|editor-first=Herbert C.|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=49–72|chapter=Slave Cooking and Meals – Arrival in the Americas|lccn=2009003907|editor-last2=Eisnach|editor-first2=Dwight|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xhpBsIa5yqEC&pg=PA49}}</ref> Na dem classify de first enslaved Africans dem send to de English colonies as indentured servants, plus legal standing similar to dat of contract-based workers wey dey cam from Britain den Ireland. By de middle of de 17th century, na slavery harden as a racial caste, plus African slaves den dema future offspring be legally de property of dema owners, as na kiddies wey be born to slave mommies sanso be slaves (''partus sequitur ventrem''). As property, na dem consider de people merchandise anaa units of labour, wey na dem be sold for markets plus oda goods den services.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Berlin|first=Ira|date=9 April 2012|title=The Discovery of the Americas and the Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/imperial-rivalries/essays/discovery-americas-and-transatlantic-slave-trade|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117153933/https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/imperial-rivalries/essays/discovery-americas-and-transatlantic-slave-trade|archive-date=17 January 2024|access-date=17 January 2024|website=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History}}</ref> === Atlantic travel === De Atlantic slave trade business start after people for de "Old World" (that place wey we dey call Afro-Eurasia) and the "New World" (the Americas) start dey do trade. For hundreds of years, de way de sea water dey move (the tidal currents) make am very hard and risky for de ships wey dem get that time to travel on top de ocean. So, because of this thing, de people wey dey live for these different continents no get plenty contact through sea travel, some sef no get contact at all.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199815%E2%80%9317-26</ref> But for de 15th century inside, Europe people come get new technology for sea travel, like de new ship wey dem invent call caravel. This thing make dem build better ships wey fit stand the sea current, so dem start dey fit cross the Atlantic Ocean. De Portugal people start one school wey dem call Navigator's School, but till today, people still dey argue whether this school dey true true, and even if e dey, dem no really know wetin e be. Between the year 1600 and 1800, like 300,000 sailors wey dey the slave trade business inside come West Africa.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristopher2006127-27</ref> As dem dey do so, dem come meet different people for West Africa coast and for the Americas wey dem never see before in their life.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199813-28 </ref> One history man, Pierre Chaunu, call the result of this Europe people their sea travel "disenclavement". E mean say, some people wey bin dey their one corner come stop dey lonely, and for most of the other people, the contact wey dem get with other people come plenty pass before.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-29</ref><ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-30</ref> === European colonization and slavery in West-Central Africa === [[File:ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg|thumb|Elmina Castle for Guinea coast, wey we dey call Ghana now, dem build am for 1482 by Portuguese traders wey be di first European-slave trading post for Sub-Saharan Africa..<ref>{{cite web|title=Elmina Castle|url=https://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi3/elmina.htm#:~:text=Located%20on%20the%20western%20coast,British%20ownership%20in%20the%201800s.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118160445/https://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi3/elmina.htm#:~:text=Located%20on%20the%20western%20coast,British%20ownership%20in%20the%201800s.|archive-date=18 January 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=[[PBS]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Womber |first1=Peter Kwame |date=2020 |title=From Anomansa to Elmina: The Establishment and the Use of the Elmina Castle – From the Portuguese to the British |url=https://www.athensjournals.gr/history/2020-6-4-4-Womber.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Athens Journal of History]] |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=349–372 |doi=10.30958/ajhis.6-4-4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118160446/https://www.athensjournals.gr/history/2020-6-4-4-Womber.pdf |archive-date=18 January 2024 |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref>]]Di Atlantic slave trade begin for 1441 when two Portuguese explorers, Nuno Tristão and António Gonçalves, waka go Mauritania for West Africa, kidnap twelve Africans come back give Portugal, present dem as gifts to Prince Henry di Navigator. By 1460, every year, dem dey carry seven hundred to eight hundred Africans enter Portugal. For Portugal, di Africans na dem house servants. From 1460 to 1500, as Portugal and Spain dey build forts for West Africa coast, di removal of Africans increase. By 1500, about 50,000 West Africans don enter Portugal and Spain. Di Africans dey work as house servants, artisans, and farmers. Some also dey work for sugar plantations for di Azores, Madeira<ref name="Butel2002">{{cite book|last1=Butel|first1=Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sLGIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|title=The Atlantic|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-134-84305-3|page=38|quote=For labour in the plantations and the 80 engeñhos (sugar mills), the Portuguese began to bring slaves from the Canaries and Africa, reaching almost 2,000 in number by the end of the fifteenth century.|access-date=13 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713165411/https://books.google.com/books?id=sLGIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|archive-date=13 July 2024|url-status=live}}</ref>, Canary, and Cape Verde islands. Di Europeans dey participate for African enslavement because dem need labor, profit, and religious reasons..<ref>{{cite web|title=Africa, Europe, and the Rise of Afro-America, 1441-1619|url=https://www.njstatelib.org/research_library/new_jersey_resources/highlights/african_american_history_curriculum/unit_2_rise_of_afro-americans/#:~:text=In%201441%20two%20Portuguese%20explorers,taken%20annually%20into%20Portugal%2C%20for|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240620204329/https://www.njstatelib.org/research_library/new_jersey_resources/highlights/african_american_history_curriculum/unit_2_rise_of_afro-americans/|archive-date=20 June 2024|access-date=16 January 2024|website=[[New Jersey State Library]]}}</ref><ref name="The Transatlantic Slave Trade">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503083908/https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm|archive-date=3 May 2024|access-date=16 January 2024|website=African American History and Ethnography|publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref>As dem dey discover new lands through dem naval explorations, di European colonisers start to migrate and settle for lands wey no be dem own. Off di coast of Africa, under di Kingdom of Castile guidance, European migrants invade and colonise di Canary Islands for di 15th century, turn plenty land to produce wine and sugar. Dem also capture native Canary Islanders, di Guanches, use dem as slaves for di Islands and across di Christian Mediterranean.{{sfn|Thornton|1998|pp=28–29}} [[File:Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG|thumb|Cape Coast Castle no be di place wey Swedish African Company set up for Ghana. Dem build am for 1653 as trading post, but e later spread to other European countries. When di British come colonize, di castle turn dem headquarters for colonial wahala. Throughout di 18th century, di Castle dey serve as big market for di British slave business.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cape Coast Castle, Cape Coast (1653)|url=https://www.ghanamuseums.org/forts/cape-coast-castle.php#:~:text=Cape%20Coast%20Castle%2C%20Cape%20Coast%20(1653)&text=The%20Swedes%2C%20led%20by%20Krusenstjerna,King%20Charles%20X%20of%20Sweden.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709053738/https://www.ghanamuseums.org/forts/cape-coast-castle.php|archive-date=9 July 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Ghana Museums and Monuments Boards}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Roth|first1=Catherine|date=2 December 2009|title=Cape Coast Castle (1652- )|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/cape-coast-castle/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211111323/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/cape-coast-castle/|archive-date=11 December 2023|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Blackpast.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Cape Coast Castle History|url=https://www.everycastle.com/Cape-Coast-Castle.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240711042755/https://everycastle.com/cape-coast-castle/|archive-date=11 July 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Castles and Places of the World}}</ref>]]After Portugal and Spain dey chop well for slave trade, more European countries waka follow. For 1530, one English merchant wey dey from Plymouth, William Hawkins, go Guinea Coast come back with small slaves. For 1564, im pikin John Hawkins, waka go Guinea Coast too, and Queen Elizabeth I support im journey. But John later turn pirate, steal 300 Africans from one Spanish slave ship after e try grab Africans for Guinea but plenty of im men die after wahala with the local people.<ref name="The Transatlantic Slave Trade2">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503083908/https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm|archive-date=3 May 2024|access-date=16 January 2024|website=African American History and Ethnography|publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref> As historian John Thornton talk, "the real reason for European expansion and navigation improvement be just to catch quick money by raiding and taking trade goods"{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=31}}. Using Canary Islands as dem base, Europeans, wey mostly be Portuguese traders, start to move their business down the western coast of Africa, dey raid wey them go capture slaves to sell later for Mediterranean.{{sfn|Thornton|1998|pp=29–31}} Although dem dey do well at first, "it no take time before African naval forces sabi say danger don dey show, and Portuguese [raiding] ships start to face strong wahala", lots of their crews die by African sailors wey get better boats to handle west-central African waters and rivers.{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=37}} [[File:Ann_Zingha.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ann_Zingha.jpg|thumb|Nzinga wey be for Ndongo and Matamba fight Portuguese Empire wey dey wahala for their slave business for beta thirty years war for Angola today.]] By 1494, di Portuguese king don enter deal with plenty West African rulers wey go fit make trade dey happen between dem peoples, make di Portuguese fit chop from di commercial economy wey African get... without wahala{{sfn|Thornton|1998|pp=38}}. "Peaceful trade be di norm for di African coast", although sometimes e go dey gree small wahala wey fit lead to palava. For example, di Portuguese traders try conquer Bissagos Islands for 1535{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=39}}. For 1571, Portugal, wey Kongo dey support, take over di south-west region of Angola to secure dem economic interest wey dey suffer small. Even though Kongo later join force for 1591 to push di Portuguese commot, dem don already secure ground for di continent wey dem dey hold till 20th century{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=40}}. Although dem get small fight between African and European forces sometimes, plenty African states make sure say any trade dey happen on dem own terms, for example, dem dey collect custom duties from foreign ships. For 1525, di Kongolese King Afonso I seize one French boat and di crew wey dey trade illegal for him coast. Afonso even complain to di king of Portugal say Portuguese slave traders dey carry him people run away, wey dey spoil him kingdom population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://www.slps.org/cms/lib/MO01001157/Centricity/Domain/9446/BBC%20-%20History%20-%20British%20History%20in%20depth_%20Africa%20and%20the%20Transatlantic%20Slave%20Trade.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330215334/https://www.slps.org/cms/lib/MO01001157/Centricity/Domain/9446/BBC%20-%20History%20-%20British%20History%20in%20depth_%20Africa%20and%20the%20Transatlantic%20Slave%20Trade.pdf|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=20 January 2024|website=St. Louis Public Schools}}</ref>{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=39}} Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba, wey be queen of di Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) and Matamba (1631–1663) for di Angola wey dey today, fight long war against di Portuguese Empire wey dey expand. At first, Nzinga gree make di Portuguese come. She convert to Christianity and change di Ndongo Kingdom to be middleman for slave trade, instead of di place wey dem go take slaves. Dis one even help her get powerful ally against hostile African Kingdoms, but di Portuguese no gree leave her kingdom, dey wan expand di slave trade and set settlements..<ref>{{cite web|title=Queen Nzinga managed to call a halt to Portuguese slave raids in her kingdom through clever tactics|url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/world-changing-women-queen-nzinga|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604172701/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/world-changing-women-queen-nzinga|archive-date=4 June 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=The Open University, History and Arts|publisher=[[The Open University]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga(1583-1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203143926/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=3 December 2023|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Black Past}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Women Leaders in African History: Ana Nzinga, Queen of Ndongo|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702032528/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm|archive-date=2 July 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> Nzinga talk say make dem stop the raids, but the Portuguese still declare war on Ndongo for 1626. Nzinga welcome runaway slaves wey run from Portuguese side and gather military wey dem call kilombo to fight the Portuguese. Within two years, Nzinga army lose and she run go exile. Later, she conquer Matamba Kingdom and join forces with Dutch West India Company and some rival African states. With their help, Nzinga fit take back plenty part of Ndongo from 1641 to 1647. Nzinga no stop to fight the Portuguese until dem sign peace treaty for 1656<ref>{{cite web|title=Queen Nzinga managed to call a halt to Portuguese slave raids in her kingdom through clever tactics|url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/world-changing-women-queen-nzinga|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604172701/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/world-changing-women-queen-nzinga|archive-date=4 June 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=The Open University, History and Arts|publisher=[[The Open University]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga(1583-1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203143926/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=3 December 2023|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Black Past}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Women Leaders in African History: Ana Nzinga, Queen of Ndongo|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702032528/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm|archive-date=2 July 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref>. Historians dey argue plenty about how these African kingdoms and European traders relate. Guyanese historian Walter Rodney talk say the relationship no balance, as Africans dey forced enter 'colonial' trade with Europeans wey dey better economically, exchanging raw materials and people (like slaves) for goods wey dem make. He argue say this economic trade matter wey start from 16th century make Africa dey underdeveloped for him time{{sfn|Rodney|1972|pp=95–113}}. Other historians like Ralph Austen{{sfn|Austen|1987|pp=81–108}} back am too. But John Thornton come challenge this unequal relationship talk for 1998, him argue say 'the Atlantic slave trade no be as important to African economy like dem scholars think' and 'African manufacturing for that time fit handle competition from preindustrial Europe.{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=44}}' Anne Bailey, when she dey comment on Thornton’s talk say Africans and Europeans be equal partners for the Atlantic slave trade, she write: {{blockquote|[T]o see Africans as partners implies equal terms and equal influence on the global and intercontinental processes of the trade. Africans had great influence on the continent itself, but they had no direct influence on the engines behind the trade in the capital firms, the shipping and insurance companies of Europe and America, or the plantation systems in Americas. They did not wield any influence on the building manufacturing centres of the West.<ref>{{cite book |first=Anne C. |last=Bailey |url=https://archive.org/details/africanvoicesofa00bail |title=African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |date=2005 |page=62 |isbn=978-0-8070-5512-0 |quote=Africans were equal partners.}}</ref>}} == 16th, 17th, den 18th centuries == ===Slave market regions den participation=== [[File:Africa slave Regions.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Major slave trading regions of Africa, 15th–19th centuries]] Na Europeans go buy den ship slaves to de Western Hemisphere from markets across West Africa. Na de number of enslaved people dem sell to de New World vary thru out de slave trade. As for de distribution of slaves from regions of activity, na certain areas produce far more enslaved people dan odas. Between 1650 den 1900, na 10.2&nbsp;million enslaved Africans arrive insyd de Americas from de following regions insyd de following proportions:<ref>[[:en:Atlantic_slave_trade#CITEREFLovejoy2000|Lovejoy 2000]].</ref> * Senegambia ([[Senegal]] den [[the Gambia]]): 4.8% * Upper Guinea ([[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Guinea]] den [[Sierra Leone]]): 4.1% * Windward Coast ([[Liberia]] den [[Ivory Coast]]): 1.8% * [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] ([[Ghana]] den east of [[Ivory Coast]]): 10.4% * Bight of Benin ([[Togo]], [[Benin]] den [[Nigeria]] west of de Niger Delta): 20.2% * Bight of Biafra ([[Nigeria]] east of de Niger Delta, [[Cameroon]], [[Equatorial Guinea]] den [[Gabon]]): 14.6% * West Central Africa ([[Republic of the Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] den [[Angola]]): 39.4% * Southeastern Africa ([[Mozambique]] den [[Madagascar]]): 4.7% Although na de slave trade be largely global, na der be considerable intracontinental slave trade insyd wich na dem enslave 8 million people within de African continent.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Inikori|first=Joseph|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1992|page=120}}</ref> Of those na wey no move out of Africa, na dem force out 8 million of Eastern Africa make dem send dem to Asia.<ref name=":2" /> ==== Ethnic groups ==== Na de different ethnic groups dem bring to de Americas closely dey correspond to de regions of heaviest activity insyd de slave trade. Na dem take over 45 distinct ethnic groups to de Americas during de trade. Of de 45, na de ten most prominent, according to slave documentation of de era den modern genealogical studies be listed below.<ref name="Hall">{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=Gwendolyn Midlo|url=http://uncpress.unc.edu/browse/book_detail?title_id=742|title=Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8078-5862-2|page=|author1-link=|access-date=24 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118132059/http://uncpress.unc.edu/browse/book_detail?title_id=742|archive-date=18 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zakharia |first1=Fouad |last2=Basu |first2=Analabha |last3=Absher |first3=Devin |last4=Assimes |first4=Themistocles L. |last5=Go |first5=Alan S. |last6=Hlatky |first6=Mark A. |last7=Iribarren |first7=Carlos |last8=Knowles |first8=Joshua W. |last9=Li |first9=Jun |last10=Narasimhan |first10=Balasubramanian |last11=Sidney |first11=Steven |last12=Southwick |first12=Audrey |last13=Myers |first13=Richard M. |last14=Quertermous |first14=Thomas |last15=Risch |first15=Neil |date=22 December 2009 |title=Characterizing the admixed African ancestry of African Americans |journal=Genome Biology |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=R141 |doi=10.1186/gb-2009-10-12-r141 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=2812948 |pmid=20025784 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Veeramah |first1=Krishna R. |last2=Connell |first2=Bruce A. |last3=Pour |first3=Naser Ansari |last4=Powell |first4=Adam |last5=Plaster |first5=Christopher A. |last6=Zeitlyn |first6=David |last7=Mendell |first7=Nancy R. |last8=Weale |first8=Michael E. |last9=Bradman |first9=Neil |last10=Thomas |first10=Mark G. |date=31 March 2010 |title=Little genetic differentiation as assessed by uniparental markers in the presence of substantial language variation in peoples of the Cross River region of Nigeria |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=92 |bibcode=2010BMCEE..10...92V |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-10-92 |issn=1471-2148 |pmc=2867817 |pmid=20356404 |doi-access=free}}</ref> # De BaKongo of de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of Congo]], de [[Republic of the Congo]] den [[Angola]] # De Mandé of Upper [[Guinea]] # De Gbe speakers of [[Togo]], [[Ghana]], and [[Benin]] (Fon, Ewe, Adja, Mina) # De [[Akan people|Akan]] of Ghana den [[Ivory Coast]] # De Wolof of [[Senegal]] den [[the Gambia]] # De Igbo of southeastern [[Nigeria]] # De Ambundu of [[Angola]] # De Yoruba of southwestern [[Nigeria]] den [[Benin]] # De Tikar and Bamileke of [[Cameroon]] # De Makua of [[Mozambique]] ===Destinations den flags of carriers=== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+ Flag of vessels wey dey carry de slaves |- !scope="col"| Destination !scope="col"| Portuguese !scope="col"| British !scope="col"| French !scope="col"| Spanish !scope="col"| Dutch !scope="col"| American !scope="col"| Danish !scope="col"| Total |- !scope="row"| Portuguese Brazil | 4,821,127 || 3,804 || 9,402 || 1,033 || 27,702 || 1,174 || 130 || 4,864,372 |- !scope="row"| British Caribbean | 7,919 || 2,208,296 || 22,920 || 5,795 || 6,996 || 64,836 || 1,489 || 2,318,251 |- !scope="row"| French Caribbean | 2,562 || 90,984 || 1,003,905 || 725 || 12,736 || 6,242 || 3,062 || 1,120,216 |- !scope="row"| Spanish Americas | 195,482 || 103,009 || 92,944 || 808,851 || 24,197 || 54,901 || 13,527 || 1,061,524 |- !scope="row"| Dutch Americas | 500 || 32,446 || 5,189 || 0 || 392,022 || 9,574 || 4,998 || 444,729 |- !scope="row"| [[United States|North America]] | 382 || 264,910 || 8,877 || 1,851 || 1,212 || 110,532 || 983 || 388,747 |- !scope="row"| Danish West Indies | 0 || 25,594 || 7,782 || 277 || 5,161 || 2,799 || 67,385 || 108,998 |- !scope="row"| Europe | 2,636 || 3,438 || 664 || 0 || 2,004 || 119 || 0 || 8,861 |- !scope="row"| Africa | 69,206 || 841 || 13,282 || 66,391 || 3,210 || 2,476 || 162 || 155,568 |- !scope="row"| ''dem no arrive'' | 748,452 || 526,121 || 216,439 || 176,601 || 79,096 || 52,673 || 19,304 || 1,818,686 |-style="font-weight:bold;" !scope="row"| '''Total''' | 5,848,266 | 3,259,443 | 1,381,404 | 1,061,524 | 554,336 | 305,326 | 111,040 | 12,521,339 |} De timeline chart wen na de different nations transport chaw of dema slaves. [[File:Slaves transported per 25 year period by 6 nations.png|thumb|center|400px]] {| class="wikitable sortable" style=text-align:right; |+ Source of slaves, by region !scope="col"| Region !scope="col"| Dem embark !scope="col"| Dem disembark !scope="col"| ''dem no arrive'' !scope="col"| ''% dem no arrive'' |- !scope="row"| Angola Coast, Loango Coast, den Saint Helena | 5,694,570 | 4,955,430 | 739,140 | 12.98% |- !scope="row"| Bight of Benin | 1,999,060 | 1,724,834 | 274,226 | 13.72% |- !scope="row"| Bight of Biafra | 1,594,564 | 1,317,776 | 276,788 | 17.36% |- !scope="row"| [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] | 1,209,322 | 1,030,917 | 178,405 | 14.75% |- !scope="row"| Senegambia den off-shore Atlantic | 755,515 | 611,017 | 144,498 | 19.13% |- !scope="row"| Southeast Africa den Indian Ocean islands | 542,668 | 436,529 | 106,139 | 19.56% |- !scope="row"| [[Sierra Leone]] | 388,771 | 338,783 | 49,988 | 12.87% |- !scope="row"| Windward Coast | 336,869 | 287,366 | 49,503 | 14.70% |-style="font-weight:bold;" !scope="row"| '''Total''' | 12,521,339 | 10,702,652 | 1,818,687 | 14.52% |} ==Effects== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+World population (insyd millions)<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf |title=The World at Six Billion |publisher=[[United Nations]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101220025/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> |- !scope="col"| Year !scope="col"| 1750 !scope="col"| 1800 !scope="col"| 1850 !scope="col"| 1900 !scope="col"| 1950 !scope="col"| 1999 |- !scope="row"| World | 791 | 978 | 1,262 | 1,650 | 2,521 | 5,978 |- !scope="row"| Africa | 106 | 107 | 111 | 133 | 221 | 767 |- !scope="row"| Asia | 502 | 635 | 809 | 947 | 1,402 | 3,634 |- !scope="row"| Europe | 163 | 203 | 276 | 408 | 547 | 729 |- !scope="row"| Latin America and the Caribbean | 16 | 24 | 38 | 74 | 167 | 511 |- !scope="row"| Northern America | 2 | 7 | 26 | 82 | 172 | 307 |- !scope="row"| Oceania | 2 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 13 | 30 |} {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+World population (by percentage distribution) |- !scope="col"| Year !scope="col"| 1750 !scope="col"| 1800 !scope="col"| 1850 !scope="col"| 1900 !scope="col"| 1950 !scope="col"| 1999 |- !scope="row"| World | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |- !scope="row"| Africa | 13.4 | 10.9 | 8.8 | 8.1 | 8.8 | 12.8 |- !scope="row"| Asia | 63.5 | 64.9 | 64.1 | 57.4 | 55.6 | 60.8 |- !scope="row"| Europe | 20.6 | 20.8 | 21.9 | 24.7 | 21.7 | 12.2 |- !scope="row"| Latin America and the Caribbean | 2.0 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 4.5 | 6.6 | 8.5 |- !scope="row"| Northern America | 0.3 | 0.7 | 2.1 | 5.0 | 6.8 | 5.1 |- !scope="row"| Oceania | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.5 |} == References == <references /> === General bibliography === ==== Academic books ==== * {{cite book|last=Austen|first=Ralph|title=African Economic History: Internal Development and External Dependency|publisher=James Currey|year=1987|isbn=978-0-85255-009-0|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Christopher|first=Emma|title=Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730–1807|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-521-67966-4|location=Cambridge}} * {{cite book|last1=Hair|first1=Paul|title=Oxford History of the British Empire volume 1: The Origins of Empire. British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth century|last2=Law|first2=Robin|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-164734-5|editor=Nicholas Canny|location=Oxford|pages=241–263|chapter=The English in western Africa to 1700}} * {{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations in Slavery - A History of Slavery in Africa|date=1983|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-78430-1|series=African Studies|number=36}} * {{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations in Slavery: a history of slavery in Africa|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book|last=Rodney|first=Walter|title=How Europe Underdeveloped Africa|publisher=Bogle L'Ouverture|year=1972|isbn=978-0-9501546-4-0|location=London|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Schama|first1=Simon|title=Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution|title-link=|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2006|isbn=978-0-06-053916-0|author1-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are masters: an African port in the era of the slave trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}} * {{cite book|last=Thornton|first=John|title=Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-521-62217-2|edition=2nd|location=New York|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last=Williams|first=Eric|title=Capitalism and Slavery|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2021|isbn=978-1-4696-6369-2|edition=Third|location=Chapel Hill|author-link=|orig-date=1944}} ==== Academic articles ==== * {{cite journal |last1=Borucki |first1=Alex |last2=Eltis |first2=David |last3=Wheat |first3=David |date=1 April 2015 |title=Atlantic History and the slave Trade to Spanish America |url=https://www.institutomora.edu.mx/Documentos_RHITMO/Atlantic-History-and-the-Slave-Trade-to-Spanish-America.pdf |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=120 |issue=2 |pages=433–461 |doi=10.1093/ahr/120.2.433 |issn=1937-5239 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619035246/https://www.institutomora.edu.mx/Documentos_RHITMO/Atlantic-History-and-the-Slave-Trade-to-Spanish-America.pdf |archive-date=19 June 2024 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last=Handley |first=Fiona J. L. |year=2006 |title=Back to Africa: Issues of hosting 'Roots' tourism in West Africa |journal=African Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora |location=London |publisher=University College London Press |pages=20–31}} * {{cite journal |last=Osei-Tutu, Brempong |year=2006 |title=Contested Monuments: African-Americans and the commoditization of Ghana's slave castles |journal=African Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora |location=London: UCL Press |pages=9–19 |ref=Ose06}} ==== Non-academic sources ==== * {{cite book|last1=Meredith|first1=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa|date=2014|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=978-1-61039-635-6|location=New York|author-link=}} ==Read further== * {{Cite book |last=Anstey |first=Roger |title=The Atlantic Slave Trade and British Abolition, 1760–1810 |publisher=Macmillan |year=1975 |isbn=0-333-14846-0 |location=London}} * {{Cite book |last=Araujo |first=Ana Lucia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kymzngEACAAJ |title=Public Memory of Slavery: Victims and Perpetrators in the South Atlantic |publisher=Cambria Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-60497-714-1}} * {{Cite book |last=Bailey |first=Anne |title=African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame |publisher=Beacon Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8070-5513-7 |location=Boston}} * {{Cite book |last=Blackburn |first=Robin |author-link= |title=The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation and Human Rights |publisher=Verso Books |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-84467-569-2 |location=London & New York}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Boruki |first1=David Eltis |last2=Wheat |first2=David |date=April 2015 |title=Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America |journal=American Historical Review |volume=120 |issue=2}} * {{Cite book |last=Clarke |first=John Henrik |author-link= |title=Christopher Columbus and the Afrikan Holocaust: Slavery and the Rise of European Capitalism |publisher=A & B Books |year=1992 |isbn=1-881316-14-9 |location=Brooklyn, NY}} * {{Cite book|last=Curtin|first=Philip D.|url=https://archive.org/details/atlanticslavetra0000curt|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade|date=1969|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-05400-7|location=Madison|oclc=46413|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Daudin |first=Guillaume |date=2004 |title=Profitability of Slave and Long-Distance Trading in Context: The Case of Eighteenth-Century France |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8fbd/65cbaf8c100207702a7442256ece292d43bd.pdf |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=144–171 |doi=10.1017/S0022050704002633 |issn=1471-6372 |s2cid=154025254 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809134718/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8fbd/65cbaf8c100207702a7442256ece292d43bd.pdf |archive-date=9 August 2020}} * {{Cite book|last=Domingues da Silva|first=Daniel B.|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade from West Central Africa, 1780–1867|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-107-17626-3|location=Cambridge}} * {{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=From Slavery to Freedom: Comparative Studies in the Rise and Fall of Atlantic Slavery|date=1999|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=0-333-73748-2|location=New York|oclc=39897280}} * {{Cite journal |last=Eltis |first=David |year=2001 |title=The volume and structure of the transatlantic slave trade: a reassessment |journal=William and Mary Quarterly |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=17–46 |doi=10.2307/2674417 |jstor=2674417 |pmid=18630381}} * {{Cite book|last=Eltis|first=David|title=The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780521652315|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|title=Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780300134360|editor-last=Eltis|editor-first=David|location=New Haven|editor-last2=Richardson|editor-first2=David}} * {{Cite book|last=Emmer|first=Pieter C.|title=The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580–1880. Trade, Slavery and Emancipation|publisher=Variorum|year=1998|isbn=9780860786979|series=Variorum Collected Studies Series|volume=CS614|location=Aldershot}} * {{Cite book|last=French|first=Howard|title=Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War|publisher=Liveright Publishing|year=2021|isbn=978-1-63149-582-3|location=New York|oclc=1268921040}} * {{Cite book|last=Green|first=Toby|title=The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=9781107014367|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last=Guasco|first=Michael|title=Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2014|isbn=9780812245783|location=Philadelphia}} * {{Cite book|last=Hall|first=Gwendolyn Midlo|title=Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2006|isbn=0-8078-2973-0|location=Chapel Hill, NC|author-link=}} * {{Cite book|last1=Heywood|first1=Linda|title=Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660|last2=Thornton|first2=John K.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last=Horne|first=Gerald|title=The Deepest South: The United States, Brazil, and the African Slave Trade|publisher=New York University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8147-3688-3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abvkqNGSTZ0C|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1992|isbn=0-8223-8237-7|editor-last=Inikori|editor-first=Joseph E.|editor-last2=Engerman|editor-first2=Stanley L.}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=Niklas Thode |last2=Simonsen |first2=Gunvor |year=2016 |title=Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016 |journal=Scandinavian Journal of History |volume=41 |issue=4–5 |pages=475–494 |doi=10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880 |doi-access=free}} * {{Cite journal |last=Landers |first=Jane |date=1984 |title=Spanish Sanctuary: Fugitives in Florida, 1687–1790 |journal=Florida Historical Quarterly |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=296–313 |jstor=30146288}} * {{Cite book|last=Lindsay|first=Lisa A.|title=Captives as Commodities: The Transatlantic Slave Trade|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2008|isbn=978-0-13-194215-8}} * {{Cite book|last=McMillin|first=James A.|title=The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America, 1783–1810|date=2004|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-546-3}} {{endash}} Includes database on CD-ROM. * {{Cite book|last=Meltzer|first=Milton|title=Slavery: A World History|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=1993|isbn=0-306-80536-7|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Christopher L.|title=The French Atlantic Triangle: Literature and Culture of the Slave Trade|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8223-4127-7|location=Durham, NC}} * {{Cite book|last1=Nimako|first1=Kwame|title=The Dutch Atlantic: Slavery, Abolition and Emancipation|last2=Willemsen|first2=Glenn|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7453-3108-9|location=London}} * {{Cite book|last1=Newson|first1=Linda|title=From Capture to Sale: The Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in the Early Seventeenth Century|last2=Minchin|first2=Susie|publisher=Brill|year=2007|isbn=9789004156791|location=Leiden}} * {{Cite book|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage|year=2010|isbn=978-0-618-64356-1|editor-last=Northrup|editor-first=David|location=Independence, KY}} * {{Cite book|last1=Rawley|first1=James A.|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History|last2=Behrendt|first2=Stephen D.|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2005|isbn=9780803239616|edition=Rev.}} * {{Cite book|last=Rediker|first=Marcus|title=The Slave Ship: A Human History|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2008|isbn=978-0-14-311425-3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last=Rodney|first=Walter|title=How Europe Underdeveloped Africa|publisher=Howard University Press|year=1981|isbn=0-88258-096-5|edition=Revised|location=Washington, DC}} * {{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World|publisher=M. E. Sharpe|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7656-1257-1|editor-last=Rodriguez|editor-first=Junius P.|location=Armonk, NY}} * {{Cite book|last=Smallwood|first=Stephanie E.|title=Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-674-03068-8|location=Cambridge, MA}} * {{Cite journal |last=Schultz |first=Kara |year=2015 |title=The Kingdom of Angola is not very far from here: The South Atlantic Slave Port of Buenos Aires, 1585–1640 |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=424–444 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1067397}} * {{Cite book|title=Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1991|isbn=0-521-40090-2|editor-last=Solow|editor-first=Barbara|location=Cambridge}} * {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |title=The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440–1870 |publisher=Picador |year=1997 |isbn=0-330-35437-X |location=London}} * {{Cite book |last=Wheat |first=David |title=Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 1570–1640 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |year=2016 |isbn=9781469623412 |location=Chapel Hill}} * {{Cite journal |last=Wheat |first=David |date=March 2011 |title=The First Great Waves: African Provenance Zones for the Transatlantic Slave Trade to Cartagena de Indias |journal=Journal of African History |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853711000119 |jstor=23017646}} * {{Cite web |last=Poulter |first=Emma |title=Slave-grown cotton in Greater Manchester museums |url=http://www.revealinghistories.org.uk/how-did-money-from-slavery-help-develop-greater-manchester/articles/slave-grown-cotton-in-greater-manchester-museums.html |website=Revealing Histories, Remembering Slavery}} * {{Cite web |title=Afro Atlantic Histories resource |url=https://www.nga.gov/learn/teachers/lessons-activities/afro-atlantic-histories.html |website=National Gallery of Art |location=Washington, DC}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Atlantic slave trade|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=Atlantic slave trade|m=no|mw=no|s=On the Horrors of the Slave Trade|wikt=no|species=no}} <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> <!--| DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. WIKIPEDIA IS NOT A COLLECTION OF |--> <!--| LINKS. If you think that your link might be useful, do not add it here, |--> <!--| but put it on this article's discussion page first or submit your link |--> <!--| to the appropriate category at the Open Directory Project (www.dmoz.org)|--> <!--| and link back to that category using the {{dmoz}} template. |--> <!--| |--> <!--| Links that have not been verified WILL BE DELETED. |--> <!--| See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details |--> <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> * [http://digitalscholarship.emory.edu/projects/featured/voyages-slave-trade.html Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database] [https://web.archive.org/web/20190705223316/http://digitalscholarship.emory.edu/projects/featured/voyages-slave-trade.html Archived] 2019-07-05 at the Wayback Machine * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6445941.stm Quick guide: The slave trade]&nbsp;– BBC News * [http://www.blackhistory4schools.com/slavetrade/ Slave Trade and Abolition of slavery]&nbsp;– Teaching resources at Black History 4 Schools * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100612112047/http://fax.libs.uga.edu/HT857xA1/stamenu.html British documents on slave holding and the slave trade, 1788–1793] {{authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Atlantic Slave Trade}} [[Category:Atlantic slave trade| ]] [[Category:1525 establishments]] [[Category:1870 disestablishments]] [[Category:African slave trade]] [[Category:Black British history]] [[Category:Early modern period]] [[Category:European colonisation of Africa]] [[Category:European colonization of de Americas]] [[Category:Forced migration]] [[Category:Genocides insyd North America]] [[Category:Genocides insyd South America]] [[Category:History of English colonialism]] [[Category:History of sugar]] [[Category:History of de Atlantic Ocean|Slave trade]] [[Category:Slavery insyd de Caribbean]] [[Category:Slavery insyd North America]] [[Category:Slavery insyd South America]] [[Category:Slavery insyd de British Empire]] [[Category:Trade routes]] [[Category:Death marches]] [[Category:Genocide of indigenous peoples insyd Africa]] 00vgpitn5pu949egshht4c92dzu1ajb 67158 67154 2025-06-29T18:02:21Z Baway94 2558 i take info choke 67158 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} [[File:Slave_Auction_Ad.jpg|thumb|Reproduction of a handbill wey dey advertise a slave auction insyd Charleston, British Province of South Carolina, insyd 1769]] Na de '''Atlantic slave trade''' anaa '''transatlantic slave trade''' involve de transportation by slave traders of [[Slavery in Africa|enslaved African people]] to de Americas. Na European slave ships regularly use de triangular trade route den ein Middle Passage. Na Europeans establish a coastal slave trade insyd de 15th century den trade to de Americas begin insyd de 16th century, wey dey last thru de 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Diffie|first=Bailey|title=Prelude to Empire: Portugal Overseas Before Henry the Navigator|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=1963|pages=58}}</ref> Na de vast majority of those wey be transported insyd de transatlantic slave trade komot [[Central Africa]] den [[West Africa]] wey na dem be sold by West African slave traders to European slave traders,[3] while na dem capture odas directly by de slave traders insyd coastal raids.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The transatlantic slave trade|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zy7fr82/revision/3|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716004107/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zy7fr82/revision/3|archive-date=16 July 2020|access-date=6 May 2021|publisher=BBC|quote=* Some of those enslaved were captured directly by the European slave traders. Enslavers ambushed and captured local people in Africa. Most slave ships used European "factors", men who lived full-time in Africa and bought enslaved people from local leaders.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Exchanging People for Trade Goods|url=https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histContextsB.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215214335/https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histContextsB.htm|archive-date=15 December 2022|access-date=12 January 2024|website=African American Heritage and Ethnography|publisher=National Park Service}}</ref> Na European slave traders gather den imprison de enslaved at forts for de African coast wey dem bring dem to de Americas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Implications of the slave trade for African societies|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zxt3gk7/revision/7|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200717094706/https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zxt3gk7/revision/7|archive-date=17 July 2020|access-date=12 June 2020|publisher=BBC|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=West Africa – National Museums Liverpool|url=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/history-of-slavery/west-africa#section--the-capture-and-sale-of-enslaved-africans|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126155135/https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/history-of-slavery/west-africa|archive-date=26 November 2020|access-date=14 October 2015|publisher=International Slavery Museum|location=Liverpool}}</ref> Na sam Portuguese den Europeans participate insyd slave raids. As de National Museums Liverpool dey explain: "Na European traders capture sam Africans insyd raids along de coast, buh dem buy chaw of dem from local African anaa African-European dealers."<ref>{{Cite web|title=The capture and sale of enslaved Africans|url=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/history-of-slavery/west-africa|url-status=live|access-date=15 August 2024|website=National Museums Liverpool}}</ref> Na chaw European slave traders generally no participate insyd slave raids secof na life expectancy give Europeans insyd sub-Saharan Africa be less dan one year during de period of de slave trade secof [[malaria]] wey na e be endemic insyd de African continent.<ref name="Malaria and French Imperialism">{{Cite journal |last=Cohen |first=William |date=1983 |title=Malaria and French Imperialism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/181856 |url-status=live |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=23–36 |doi=10.1017/S0021853700021502 |jstor=181856 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240429141741/https://www.jstor.org/stable/181856 |archive-date=29 April 2024 |access-date=29 April 2024}}</ref> Na Portuguese coastal raiders find say na [[slave raiding]] be too costly den often ineffective wey dem opt for established commercial relations.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade|url=https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/trans_atlantic_slave_trade|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240627115650/https://ldhi.library.cofc.edu/exhibits/show/africanpassageslowcountryadapt/introductionatlanticworld/trans_atlantic_slave_trade|archive-date=27 June 2024|access-date=28 April 2024|website=Lowcountry Digital History Initiative|publisher=College of Charleston}}</ref> Na de colonial South Atlantic den Caribbean economies be particularly dependent for slave labour top for de production of sugarcane den oda commodities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Rise and Fall of King Sugar|url=https://www.natt.gov.tt/sites/default/files/pdfs/The-Rise-and-Fall-of-King-Sugar.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240625094400/http://natt.gov.tt/sites/default/files/pdfs/The-Rise-and-Fall-of-King-Sugar.pdf|archive-date=25 June 2024|access-date=24 January 2024|website=National Archives of Trinidad and Tobago}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Sugar Plantations|url=https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/archaeologyofslavery/sugar-plantations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127075115/https://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/archaeologyofslavery/sugar-plantations|archive-date=27 January 2024|access-date=24 January 2024|website=National Museums Liverpool}}</ref> Na dis be viewed as crucial by those Western European states wich na dem dey vie plus one anoda make dem create overseas empires.<ref name="Mannix 1962 Introduction-1–5">{{Cite book|last=Mannix|first=Daniel|url=https://archive.org/details/blackcargoeshist00mann|title=Black Cargoes|publisher=The Viking Press|year=1962|pages=Introduction–1–5|url-access=registration}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Ives Bortolot|first=Alexander|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117150911/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/slav/hd_slav.htm|archive-date=17 January 2024|access-date=17 January 2024|website=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University}}</ref> Na de Portuguese, insyd de 16th century, be de first make dem transport slaves across de Atlantic. Insyd 1526, na dem plete de first transatlantic slave voyage to [[Brazil]], den oda Europeans soon follow.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Weber|first=Greta|date=5 June 2015|title=Shipwreck Shines Light on Historic Shift in Slave Trade|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150605-shipwreck-slave-trade-south-africa-18th-century-brazil|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607030319/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/06/150605-shipwreck-slave-trade-south-africa-18th-century-brazil/|archive-date=7 June 2015|access-date=8 June 2015|publisher=National Geographic Society}}</ref> Na shipowners regard de slaves as cargo make dem be transported to de Americas as quickly den cheaply as possible,<ref name="Mannix 1962 Introduction-1–5" /> for der make dem sell dem make work for coffee, tobacco, cocoa, sugar, den cotton plantations, gold den silver mines, rice fields, de construction industry, cutting timber for ships, as skilled labour, den as domestic servants.<ref name="Covey-Eisnach 2009">{{Cite book|title=What the Slaves Ate: Recollections of African American Foods and Foodways from the Slave Narratives|publisher=Greenwood Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-313-37497-5|editor-last=Covey|editor-first=Herbert C.|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=49–72|chapter=Slave Cooking and Meals – Arrival in the Americas|lccn=2009003907|editor-last2=Eisnach|editor-first2=Dwight|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xhpBsIa5yqEC&pg=PA49}}</ref> Na dem classify de first enslaved Africans dem send to de English colonies as indentured servants, plus legal standing similar to dat of contract-based workers wey dey cam from Britain den Ireland. By de middle of de 17th century, na slavery harden as a racial caste, plus African slaves den dema future offspring be legally de property of dema owners, as na kiddies wey be born to slave mommies sanso be slaves (''partus sequitur ventrem''). As property, na dem consider de people merchandise anaa units of labour, wey na dem be sold for markets plus oda goods den services.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Berlin|first=Ira|date=9 April 2012|title=The Discovery of the Americas and the Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/imperial-rivalries/essays/discovery-americas-and-transatlantic-slave-trade|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117153933/https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/imperial-rivalries/essays/discovery-americas-and-transatlantic-slave-trade|archive-date=17 January 2024|access-date=17 January 2024|website=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History}}</ref> === Atlantic travel === De Atlantic slave trade business start after people for de "Old World" (that place wey we dey call Afro-Eurasia) and the "New World" (the Americas) start dey do trade. For hundreds of years, de way de sea water dey move (the tidal currents) make am very hard and risky for de ships wey dem get that time to travel on top de ocean. So, because of this thing, de people wey dey live for these different continents no get plenty contact through sea travel, some sef no get contact at all.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199815%E2%80%9317-26</ref> But for de 15th century inside, Europe people come get new technology for sea travel, like de new ship wey dem invent call caravel. This thing make dem build better ships wey fit stand the sea current, so dem start dey fit cross the Atlantic Ocean. De Portugal people start one school wey dem call Navigator's School, but till today, people still dey argue whether this school dey true true, and even if e dey, dem no really know wetin e be. Between the year 1600 and 1800, like 300,000 sailors wey dey the slave trade business inside come West Africa.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristopher2006127-27</ref> As dem dey do so, dem come meet different people for West Africa coast and for the Americas wey dem never see before in their life.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199813-28 </ref> One history man, Pierre Chaunu, call the result of this Europe people their sea travel "disenclavement". E mean say, some people wey bin dey their one corner come stop dey lonely, and for most of the other people, the contact wey dem get with other people come plenty pass before.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-29</ref><ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-30</ref> One history man, John Thornton, talk say, "Plenty technical and geographical things join body make am be like say na Europe people pɛ go fit explore de Atlantic and start trade for there".<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199824-31</ref> He talk say de things wey push dem be say, dem dey find new ways to make money through trade wey no dey Europe inside. Plus, dem want make their own trade routes wey de Muslim Ottoman Empire for Middle East no go control. Dem see this Ottoman Empire people as threat to their business, their power, and their Christian religion for Europe. Especially, de Europe traders want trade gold wey dem fit get for West Africa, and dem want find sea route go "de Indies" (India), where dem fit trade fine fine things like spices without say dem go buy am from de Middle East Islamic traders.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199824%E2%80%9326-32</ref> De Portugal sea-men use caravel ships travel go south for de West African coast, and for 1462, dem go colonize Cape Verde. For de first time wey de Europe people start dey colonize places, even though na de Iberian conquistadors (wey be people from Spain and Portugal side) dey lead de first travels for de Atlantic sea top, people from plenty other Europe countries join body. Sailors from Spain, Portugal, France, England, de Italian states, and Netherlands all dey inside. Because plenty different people dey inside, e make Thornton talk say de first "exploration of de Atlantic" be like "international work true true, even if na de Iberian kings and queens sponsor de money for de big big discoveries wey dem make". But because dem lead, e later make people start dey talk lie lie say "na only de Iberia people lead de exploration". <ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThornton199827-34</ref>De way de Europe people spread go other countries make de Old and New Worlds come meet, and dis thing born de Columbian Exchange, wey dem name am after de Italian explorer, Christopher Columbus.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-McNeill_2019-35</ref> E start de world silver trade from de 16th go reach de 18th century, and e make de Europe people go involve demself direct for de Chinese porcelain trade. E involve say dem carry goods wey dey one side of de world go de other side. De Europe people carry cattle, horses, and sheep go de New World, and from de New World, de Europe people get tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Other things wey come get value for de world trade be de tobacco, sugarcane, and cotton wey dem dey grow for de Americas, plus de gold and silver wey dem carry from de American continent no be only go Europe, but other places for de Old World inside.<ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-oxfordbibliographies1-36</ref><ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-Escudero_2014-37</ref><ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-Knight_2010-38</ref><ref>https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade#cite_note-Nater_2006-39</ref> === European colonization and slavery in West-Central Africa === [[File:ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ElMina_AtlasBlaeuvanderHem.jpg|thumb|Elmina Castle for Guinea coast, wey we dey call Ghana now, dem build am for 1482 by Portuguese traders wey be di first European-slave trading post for Sub-Saharan Africa..<ref>{{cite web|title=Elmina Castle|url=https://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi3/elmina.htm#:~:text=Located%20on%20the%20western%20coast,British%20ownership%20in%20the%201800s.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118160445/https://www.pbs.org/wonders/Episodes/Epi3/elmina.htm#:~:text=Located%20on%20the%20western%20coast,British%20ownership%20in%20the%201800s.|archive-date=18 January 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=[[PBS]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Womber |first1=Peter Kwame |date=2020 |title=From Anomansa to Elmina: The Establishment and the Use of the Elmina Castle – From the Portuguese to the British |url=https://www.athensjournals.gr/history/2020-6-4-4-Womber.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[Athens Journal of History]] |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=349–372 |doi=10.30958/ajhis.6-4-4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118160446/https://www.athensjournals.gr/history/2020-6-4-4-Womber.pdf |archive-date=18 January 2024 |access-date=18 January 2024}}</ref>]]Di Atlantic slave trade begin for 1441 when two Portuguese explorers, Nuno Tristão and António Gonçalves, waka go Mauritania for West Africa, kidnap twelve Africans come back give Portugal, present dem as gifts to Prince Henry di Navigator. By 1460, every year, dem dey carry seven hundred to eight hundred Africans enter Portugal. For Portugal, di Africans na dem house servants. From 1460 to 1500, as Portugal and Spain dey build forts for West Africa coast, di removal of Africans increase. By 1500, about 50,000 West Africans don enter Portugal and Spain. Di Africans dey work as house servants, artisans, and farmers. Some also dey work for sugar plantations for di Azores, Madeira<ref name="Butel2002">{{cite book|last1=Butel|first1=Paul|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sLGIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|title=The Atlantic|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-134-84305-3|page=38|quote=For labour in the plantations and the 80 engeñhos (sugar mills), the Portuguese began to bring slaves from the Canaries and Africa, reaching almost 2,000 in number by the end of the fifteenth century.|access-date=13 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240713165411/https://books.google.com/books?id=sLGIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|archive-date=13 July 2024|url-status=live}}</ref>, Canary, and Cape Verde islands. Di Europeans dey participate for African enslavement because dem need labor, profit, and religious reasons..<ref>{{cite web|title=Africa, Europe, and the Rise of Afro-America, 1441-1619|url=https://www.njstatelib.org/research_library/new_jersey_resources/highlights/african_american_history_curriculum/unit_2_rise_of_afro-americans/#:~:text=In%201441%20two%20Portuguese%20explorers,taken%20annually%20into%20Portugal%2C%20for|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240620204329/https://www.njstatelib.org/research_library/new_jersey_resources/highlights/african_american_history_curriculum/unit_2_rise_of_afro-americans/|archive-date=20 June 2024|access-date=16 January 2024|website=[[New Jersey State Library]]}}</ref><ref name="The Transatlantic Slave Trade">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503083908/https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm|archive-date=3 May 2024|access-date=16 January 2024|website=African American History and Ethnography|publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref>As dem dey discover new lands through dem naval explorations, di European colonisers start to migrate and settle for lands wey no be dem own. Off di coast of Africa, under di Kingdom of Castile guidance, European migrants invade and colonise di Canary Islands for di 15th century, turn plenty land to produce wine and sugar. Dem also capture native Canary Islanders, di Guanches, use dem as slaves for di Islands and across di Christian Mediterranean.{{sfn|Thornton|1998|pp=28–29}} [[File:Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cannons_at_Cape_Coast_Castle.JPG|thumb|Cape Coast Castle no be di place wey Swedish African Company set up for Ghana. Dem build am for 1653 as trading post, but e later spread to other European countries. When di British come colonize, di castle turn dem headquarters for colonial wahala. Throughout di 18th century, di Castle dey serve as big market for di British slave business.<ref>{{cite web|title=Cape Coast Castle, Cape Coast (1653)|url=https://www.ghanamuseums.org/forts/cape-coast-castle.php#:~:text=Cape%20Coast%20Castle%2C%20Cape%20Coast%20(1653)&text=The%20Swedes%2C%20led%20by%20Krusenstjerna,King%20Charles%20X%20of%20Sweden.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240709053738/https://www.ghanamuseums.org/forts/cape-coast-castle.php|archive-date=9 July 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Ghana Museums and Monuments Boards}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Roth|first1=Catherine|date=2 December 2009|title=Cape Coast Castle (1652- )|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/cape-coast-castle/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231211111323/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/cape-coast-castle/|archive-date=11 December 2023|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Blackpast.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Cape Coast Castle History|url=https://www.everycastle.com/Cape-Coast-Castle.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240711042755/https://everycastle.com/cape-coast-castle/|archive-date=11 July 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Castles and Places of the World}}</ref>]]After Portugal and Spain dey chop well for slave trade, more European countries waka follow. For 1530, one English merchant wey dey from Plymouth, William Hawkins, go Guinea Coast come back with small slaves. For 1564, im pikin John Hawkins, waka go Guinea Coast too, and Queen Elizabeth I support im journey. But John later turn pirate, steal 300 Africans from one Spanish slave ship after e try grab Africans for Guinea but plenty of im men die after wahala with the local people.<ref name="The Transatlantic Slave Trade2">{{cite web|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503083908/https://www.nps.gov/ethnography/aah/aaheritage/histcontextsc.htm|archive-date=3 May 2024|access-date=16 January 2024|website=African American History and Ethnography|publisher=[[National Park Service]]}}</ref> As historian John Thornton talk, "the real reason for European expansion and navigation improvement be just to catch quick money by raiding and taking trade goods"{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=31}}. Using Canary Islands as dem base, Europeans, wey mostly be Portuguese traders, start to move their business down the western coast of Africa, dey raid wey them go capture slaves to sell later for Mediterranean.{{sfn|Thornton|1998|pp=29–31}} Although dem dey do well at first, "it no take time before African naval forces sabi say danger don dey show, and Portuguese [raiding] ships start to face strong wahala", lots of their crews die by African sailors wey get better boats to handle west-central African waters and rivers.{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=37}} [[File:Ann_Zingha.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ann_Zingha.jpg|thumb|Nzinga wey be for Ndongo and Matamba fight Portuguese Empire wey dey wahala for their slave business for beta thirty years war for Angola today.]] By 1494, di Portuguese king don enter deal with plenty West African rulers wey go fit make trade dey happen between dem peoples, make di Portuguese fit chop from di commercial economy wey African get... without wahala{{sfn|Thornton|1998|pp=38}}. "Peaceful trade be di norm for di African coast", although sometimes e go dey gree small wahala wey fit lead to palava. For example, di Portuguese traders try conquer Bissagos Islands for 1535{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=39}}. For 1571, Portugal, wey Kongo dey support, take over di south-west region of Angola to secure dem economic interest wey dey suffer small. Even though Kongo later join force for 1591 to push di Portuguese commot, dem don already secure ground for di continent wey dem dey hold till 20th century{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=40}}. Although dem get small fight between African and European forces sometimes, plenty African states make sure say any trade dey happen on dem own terms, for example, dem dey collect custom duties from foreign ships. For 1525, di Kongolese King Afonso I seize one French boat and di crew wey dey trade illegal for him coast. Afonso even complain to di king of Portugal say Portuguese slave traders dey carry him people run away, wey dey spoil him kingdom population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Africa and the Transatlantic Slave Trade|url=https://www.slps.org/cms/lib/MO01001157/Centricity/Domain/9446/BBC%20-%20History%20-%20British%20History%20in%20depth_%20Africa%20and%20the%20Transatlantic%20Slave%20Trade.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330215334/https://www.slps.org/cms/lib/MO01001157/Centricity/Domain/9446/BBC%20-%20History%20-%20British%20History%20in%20depth_%20Africa%20and%20the%20Transatlantic%20Slave%20Trade.pdf|archive-date=30 March 2024|access-date=20 January 2024|website=St. Louis Public Schools}}</ref>{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=39}} Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba, wey be queen of di Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) and Matamba (1631–1663) for di Angola wey dey today, fight long war against di Portuguese Empire wey dey expand. At first, Nzinga gree make di Portuguese come. She convert to Christianity and change di Ndongo Kingdom to be middleman for slave trade, instead of di place wey dem go take slaves. Dis one even help her get powerful ally against hostile African Kingdoms, but di Portuguese no gree leave her kingdom, dey wan expand di slave trade and set settlements..<ref>{{cite web|title=Queen Nzinga managed to call a halt to Portuguese slave raids in her kingdom through clever tactics|url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/world-changing-women-queen-nzinga|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604172701/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/world-changing-women-queen-nzinga|archive-date=4 June 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=The Open University, History and Arts|publisher=[[The Open University]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga(1583-1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203143926/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=3 December 2023|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Black Past}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Women Leaders in African History: Ana Nzinga, Queen of Ndongo|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702032528/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm|archive-date=2 July 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref> Nzinga talk say make dem stop the raids, but the Portuguese still declare war on Ndongo for 1626. Nzinga welcome runaway slaves wey run from Portuguese side and gather military wey dem call kilombo to fight the Portuguese. Within two years, Nzinga army lose and she run go exile. Later, she conquer Matamba Kingdom and join forces with Dutch West India Company and some rival African states. With their help, Nzinga fit take back plenty part of Ndongo from 1641 to 1647. Nzinga no stop to fight the Portuguese until dem sign peace treaty for 1656<ref>{{cite web|title=Queen Nzinga managed to call a halt to Portuguese slave raids in her kingdom through clever tactics|url=https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/world-changing-women-queen-nzinga|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240604172701/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/world-changing-women-queen-nzinga|archive-date=4 June 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=The Open University, History and Arts|publisher=[[The Open University]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga(1583-1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203143926/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=3 December 2023|access-date=18 January 2024|website=Black Past}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Women Leaders in African History: Ana Nzinga, Queen of Ndongo|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240702032528/https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm|archive-date=2 July 2024|access-date=18 January 2024|website=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]}}</ref>. Historians dey argue plenty about how these African kingdoms and European traders relate. Guyanese historian Walter Rodney talk say the relationship no balance, as Africans dey forced enter 'colonial' trade with Europeans wey dey better economically, exchanging raw materials and people (like slaves) for goods wey dem make. He argue say this economic trade matter wey start from 16th century make Africa dey underdeveloped for him time{{sfn|Rodney|1972|pp=95–113}}. Other historians like Ralph Austen{{sfn|Austen|1987|pp=81–108}} back am too. But John Thornton come challenge this unequal relationship talk for 1998, him argue say 'the Atlantic slave trade no be as important to African economy like dem scholars think' and 'African manufacturing for that time fit handle competition from preindustrial Europe.{{sfn|Thornton|1998|p=44}}' Anne Bailey, when she dey comment on Thornton’s talk say Africans and Europeans be equal partners for the Atlantic slave trade, she write: {{blockquote|[T]o see Africans as partners implies equal terms and equal influence on the global and intercontinental processes of the trade. Africans had great influence on the continent itself, but they had no direct influence on the engines behind the trade in the capital firms, the shipping and insurance companies of Europe and America, or the plantation systems in Americas. They did not wield any influence on the building manufacturing centres of the West.<ref>{{cite book |first=Anne C. |last=Bailey |url=https://archive.org/details/africanvoicesofa00bail |title=African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |date=2005 |page=62 |isbn=978-0-8070-5512-0 |quote=Africans were equal partners.}}</ref>}} == 16th, 17th, den 18th centuries == ===Slave market regions den participation=== [[File:Africa slave Regions.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Major slave trading regions of Africa, 15th–19th centuries]] Na Europeans go buy den ship slaves to de Western Hemisphere from markets across West Africa. Na de number of enslaved people dem sell to de New World vary thru out de slave trade. As for de distribution of slaves from regions of activity, na certain areas produce far more enslaved people dan odas. Between 1650 den 1900, na 10.2&nbsp;million enslaved Africans arrive insyd de Americas from de following regions insyd de following proportions:<ref>[[:en:Atlantic_slave_trade#CITEREFLovejoy2000|Lovejoy 2000]].</ref> * Senegambia ([[Senegal]] den [[the Gambia]]): 4.8% * Upper Guinea ([[Guinea-Bissau]], [[Guinea]] den [[Sierra Leone]]): 4.1% * Windward Coast ([[Liberia]] den [[Ivory Coast]]): 1.8% * [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] ([[Ghana]] den east of [[Ivory Coast]]): 10.4% * Bight of Benin ([[Togo]], [[Benin]] den [[Nigeria]] west of de Niger Delta): 20.2% * Bight of Biafra ([[Nigeria]] east of de Niger Delta, [[Cameroon]], [[Equatorial Guinea]] den [[Gabon]]): 14.6% * West Central Africa ([[Republic of the Congo]], [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] den [[Angola]]): 39.4% * Southeastern Africa ([[Mozambique]] den [[Madagascar]]): 4.7% Although na de slave trade be largely global, na der be considerable intracontinental slave trade insyd wich na dem enslave 8 million people within de African continent.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Inikori|first=Joseph|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1992|page=120}}</ref> Of those na wey no move out of Africa, na dem force out 8 million of Eastern Africa make dem send dem to Asia.<ref name=":2" /> ==== Ethnic groups ==== Na de different ethnic groups dem bring to de Americas closely dey correspond to de regions of heaviest activity insyd de slave trade. Na dem take over 45 distinct ethnic groups to de Americas during de trade. Of de 45, na de ten most prominent, according to slave documentation of de era den modern genealogical studies be listed below.<ref name="Hall">{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=Gwendolyn Midlo|url=http://uncpress.unc.edu/browse/book_detail?title_id=742|title=Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8078-5862-2|page=|author1-link=|access-date=24 January 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118132059/http://uncpress.unc.edu/browse/book_detail?title_id=742|archive-date=18 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zakharia |first1=Fouad |last2=Basu |first2=Analabha |last3=Absher |first3=Devin |last4=Assimes |first4=Themistocles L. |last5=Go |first5=Alan S. |last6=Hlatky |first6=Mark A. |last7=Iribarren |first7=Carlos |last8=Knowles |first8=Joshua W. |last9=Li |first9=Jun |last10=Narasimhan |first10=Balasubramanian |last11=Sidney |first11=Steven |last12=Southwick |first12=Audrey |last13=Myers |first13=Richard M. |last14=Quertermous |first14=Thomas |last15=Risch |first15=Neil |date=22 December 2009 |title=Characterizing the admixed African ancestry of African Americans |journal=Genome Biology |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=R141 |doi=10.1186/gb-2009-10-12-r141 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=2812948 |pmid=20025784 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Veeramah |first1=Krishna R. |last2=Connell |first2=Bruce A. |last3=Pour |first3=Naser Ansari |last4=Powell |first4=Adam |last5=Plaster |first5=Christopher A. |last6=Zeitlyn |first6=David |last7=Mendell |first7=Nancy R. |last8=Weale |first8=Michael E. |last9=Bradman |first9=Neil |last10=Thomas |first10=Mark G. |date=31 March 2010 |title=Little genetic differentiation as assessed by uniparental markers in the presence of substantial language variation in peoples of the Cross River region of Nigeria |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=92 |bibcode=2010BMCEE..10...92V |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-10-92 |issn=1471-2148 |pmc=2867817 |pmid=20356404 |doi-access=free}}</ref> # De BaKongo of de [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Democratic Republic of Congo]], de [[Republic of the Congo]] den [[Angola]] # De Mandé of Upper [[Guinea]] # De Gbe speakers of [[Togo]], [[Ghana]], and [[Benin]] (Fon, Ewe, Adja, Mina) # De [[Akan people|Akan]] of Ghana den [[Ivory Coast]] # De Wolof of [[Senegal]] den [[the Gambia]] # De Igbo of southeastern [[Nigeria]] # De Ambundu of [[Angola]] # De Yoruba of southwestern [[Nigeria]] den [[Benin]] # De Tikar and Bamileke of [[Cameroon]] # De Makua of [[Mozambique]] ===Destinations den flags of carriers=== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+ Flag of vessels wey dey carry de slaves |- !scope="col"| Destination !scope="col"| Portuguese !scope="col"| British !scope="col"| French !scope="col"| Spanish !scope="col"| Dutch !scope="col"| American !scope="col"| Danish !scope="col"| Total |- !scope="row"| Portuguese Brazil | 4,821,127 || 3,804 || 9,402 || 1,033 || 27,702 || 1,174 || 130 || 4,864,372 |- !scope="row"| British Caribbean | 7,919 || 2,208,296 || 22,920 || 5,795 || 6,996 || 64,836 || 1,489 || 2,318,251 |- !scope="row"| French Caribbean | 2,562 || 90,984 || 1,003,905 || 725 || 12,736 || 6,242 || 3,062 || 1,120,216 |- !scope="row"| Spanish Americas | 195,482 || 103,009 || 92,944 || 808,851 || 24,197 || 54,901 || 13,527 || 1,061,524 |- !scope="row"| Dutch Americas | 500 || 32,446 || 5,189 || 0 || 392,022 || 9,574 || 4,998 || 444,729 |- !scope="row"| [[United States|North America]] | 382 || 264,910 || 8,877 || 1,851 || 1,212 || 110,532 || 983 || 388,747 |- !scope="row"| Danish West Indies | 0 || 25,594 || 7,782 || 277 || 5,161 || 2,799 || 67,385 || 108,998 |- !scope="row"| Europe | 2,636 || 3,438 || 664 || 0 || 2,004 || 119 || 0 || 8,861 |- !scope="row"| Africa | 69,206 || 841 || 13,282 || 66,391 || 3,210 || 2,476 || 162 || 155,568 |- !scope="row"| ''dem no arrive'' | 748,452 || 526,121 || 216,439 || 176,601 || 79,096 || 52,673 || 19,304 || 1,818,686 |-style="font-weight:bold;" !scope="row"| '''Total''' | 5,848,266 | 3,259,443 | 1,381,404 | 1,061,524 | 554,336 | 305,326 | 111,040 | 12,521,339 |} De timeline chart wen na de different nations transport chaw of dema slaves. [[File:Slaves transported per 25 year period by 6 nations.png|thumb|center|400px]] {| class="wikitable sortable" style=text-align:right; |+ Source of slaves, by region !scope="col"| Region !scope="col"| Dem embark !scope="col"| Dem disembark !scope="col"| ''dem no arrive'' !scope="col"| ''% dem no arrive'' |- !scope="row"| Angola Coast, Loango Coast, den Saint Helena | 5,694,570 | 4,955,430 | 739,140 | 12.98% |- !scope="row"| Bight of Benin | 1,999,060 | 1,724,834 | 274,226 | 13.72% |- !scope="row"| Bight of Biafra | 1,594,564 | 1,317,776 | 276,788 | 17.36% |- !scope="row"| [[Gold Coast (region)|Gold Coast]] | 1,209,322 | 1,030,917 | 178,405 | 14.75% |- !scope="row"| Senegambia den off-shore Atlantic | 755,515 | 611,017 | 144,498 | 19.13% |- !scope="row"| Southeast Africa den Indian Ocean islands | 542,668 | 436,529 | 106,139 | 19.56% |- !scope="row"| [[Sierra Leone]] | 388,771 | 338,783 | 49,988 | 12.87% |- !scope="row"| Windward Coast | 336,869 | 287,366 | 49,503 | 14.70% |-style="font-weight:bold;" !scope="row"| '''Total''' | 12,521,339 | 10,702,652 | 1,818,687 | 14.52% |} ==Effects== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+World population (insyd millions)<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf |title=The World at Six Billion |publisher=[[United Nations]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101220025/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/sixbillion/sixbilpart1.pdf |archive-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> |- !scope="col"| Year !scope="col"| 1750 !scope="col"| 1800 !scope="col"| 1850 !scope="col"| 1900 !scope="col"| 1950 !scope="col"| 1999 |- !scope="row"| World | 791 | 978 | 1,262 | 1,650 | 2,521 | 5,978 |- !scope="row"| Africa | 106 | 107 | 111 | 133 | 221 | 767 |- !scope="row"| Asia | 502 | 635 | 809 | 947 | 1,402 | 3,634 |- !scope="row"| Europe | 163 | 203 | 276 | 408 | 547 | 729 |- !scope="row"| Latin America and the Caribbean | 16 | 24 | 38 | 74 | 167 | 511 |- !scope="row"| Northern America | 2 | 7 | 26 | 82 | 172 | 307 |- !scope="row"| Oceania | 2 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 13 | 30 |} {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+World population (by percentage distribution) |- !scope="col"| Year !scope="col"| 1750 !scope="col"| 1800 !scope="col"| 1850 !scope="col"| 1900 !scope="col"| 1950 !scope="col"| 1999 |- !scope="row"| World | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |- !scope="row"| Africa | 13.4 | 10.9 | 8.8 | 8.1 | 8.8 | 12.8 |- !scope="row"| Asia | 63.5 | 64.9 | 64.1 | 57.4 | 55.6 | 60.8 |- !scope="row"| Europe | 20.6 | 20.8 | 21.9 | 24.7 | 21.7 | 12.2 |- !scope="row"| Latin America and the Caribbean | 2.0 | 2.5 | 3.0 | 4.5 | 6.6 | 8.5 |- !scope="row"| Northern America | 0.3 | 0.7 | 2.1 | 5.0 | 6.8 | 5.1 |- !scope="row"| Oceania | 0.3 | 0.2 | 0.2 | 0.4 | 0.5 | 0.5 |} == References == <references /> === General bibliography === ==== Academic books ==== * {{cite book|last=Austen|first=Ralph|title=African Economic History: Internal Development and External Dependency|publisher=James Currey|year=1987|isbn=978-0-85255-009-0|location=London}} * {{cite book|last=Christopher|first=Emma|title=Slave Ship Sailors and Their Captive Cargoes, 1730–1807|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2006|isbn=0-521-67966-4|location=Cambridge}} * {{cite book|last1=Hair|first1=Paul|title=Oxford History of the British Empire volume 1: The Origins of Empire. British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth century|last2=Law|first2=Robin|date=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-164734-5|editor=Nicholas Canny|location=Oxford|pages=241–263|chapter=The English in western Africa to 1700}} * {{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations in Slavery - A History of Slavery in Africa|date=1983|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-78430-1|series=African Studies|number=36}} * {{cite book|last=Lovejoy|first=Paul E.|title=Transformations in Slavery: a history of slavery in Africa|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press}} * {{cite book|last=Rodney|first=Walter|title=How Europe Underdeveloped Africa|publisher=Bogle L'Ouverture|year=1972|isbn=978-0-9501546-4-0|location=London|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Schama|first1=Simon|title=Rough Crossings: Britain, the Slaves and the American Revolution|title-link=|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2006|isbn=978-0-06-053916-0|author1-link=}} * {{cite book|last1=Sparks|first1=Randy J.|title=Where the Negroes are masters: an African port in the era of the slave trade|date=2014|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-72487-7|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}} * {{cite book|last=Thornton|first=John|title=Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, 1400–1800|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-521-62217-2|edition=2nd|location=New York|author-link=}} * {{cite book|last=Williams|first=Eric|title=Capitalism and Slavery|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2021|isbn=978-1-4696-6369-2|edition=Third|location=Chapel Hill|author-link=|orig-date=1944}} ==== Academic articles ==== * {{cite journal |last1=Borucki |first1=Alex |last2=Eltis |first2=David |last3=Wheat |first3=David |date=1 April 2015 |title=Atlantic History and the slave Trade to Spanish America |url=https://www.institutomora.edu.mx/Documentos_RHITMO/Atlantic-History-and-the-Slave-Trade-to-Spanish-America.pdf |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=120 |issue=2 |pages=433–461 |doi=10.1093/ahr/120.2.433 |issn=1937-5239 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240619035246/https://www.institutomora.edu.mx/Documentos_RHITMO/Atlantic-History-and-the-Slave-Trade-to-Spanish-America.pdf |archive-date=19 June 2024 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |last=Handley |first=Fiona J. L. |year=2006 |title=Back to Africa: Issues of hosting 'Roots' tourism in West Africa |journal=African Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora |location=London |publisher=University College London Press |pages=20–31}} * {{cite journal |last=Osei-Tutu, Brempong |year=2006 |title=Contested Monuments: African-Americans and the commoditization of Ghana's slave castles |journal=African Re-Genesis: Confronting Social Issues in the Diaspora |location=London: UCL Press |pages=9–19 |ref=Ose06}} ==== Non-academic sources ==== * {{cite book|last1=Meredith|first1=Martin|title=The Fortunes of Africa|date=2014|publisher=PublicAffairs|isbn=978-1-61039-635-6|location=New York|author-link=}} ==Read further== * {{Cite book |last=Anstey |first=Roger |title=The Atlantic Slave Trade and British Abolition, 1760–1810 |publisher=Macmillan |year=1975 |isbn=0-333-14846-0 |location=London}} * {{Cite book |last=Araujo |first=Ana Lucia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kymzngEACAAJ |title=Public Memory of Slavery: Victims and Perpetrators in the South Atlantic |publisher=Cambria Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-60497-714-1}} * {{Cite book |last=Bailey |first=Anne |title=African Voices of the Atlantic Slave Trade: Beyond the Silence and the Shame |publisher=Beacon Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8070-5513-7 |location=Boston}} * {{Cite book |last=Blackburn |first=Robin |author-link= |title=The American Crucible: Slavery, Emancipation and Human Rights |publisher=Verso Books |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-84467-569-2 |location=London & New York}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Boruki |first1=David Eltis |last2=Wheat |first2=David |date=April 2015 |title=Atlantic History and the Slave Trade to Spanish America |journal=American Historical Review |volume=120 |issue=2}} * {{Cite book |last=Clarke |first=John Henrik |author-link= |title=Christopher Columbus and the Afrikan Holocaust: Slavery and the Rise of European Capitalism |publisher=A & B Books |year=1992 |isbn=1-881316-14-9 |location=Brooklyn, NY}} * {{Cite book|last=Curtin|first=Philip D.|url=https://archive.org/details/atlanticslavetra0000curt|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade|date=1969|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=978-0-299-05400-7|location=Madison|oclc=46413|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite journal |last=Daudin |first=Guillaume |date=2004 |title=Profitability of Slave and Long-Distance Trading in Context: The Case of Eighteenth-Century France |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8fbd/65cbaf8c100207702a7442256ece292d43bd.pdf |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=144–171 |doi=10.1017/S0022050704002633 |issn=1471-6372 |s2cid=154025254 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809134718/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8fbd/65cbaf8c100207702a7442256ece292d43bd.pdf |archive-date=9 August 2020}} * {{Cite book|last=Domingues da Silva|first=Daniel B.|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade from West Central Africa, 1780–1867|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-1-107-17626-3|location=Cambridge}} * {{Cite book|last=Drescher|first=Seymour|title=From Slavery to Freedom: Comparative Studies in the Rise and Fall of Atlantic Slavery|date=1999|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=0-333-73748-2|location=New York|oclc=39897280}} * {{Cite journal |last=Eltis |first=David |year=2001 |title=The volume and structure of the transatlantic slave trade: a reassessment |journal=William and Mary Quarterly |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=17–46 |doi=10.2307/2674417 |jstor=2674417 |pmid=18630381}} * {{Cite book|last=Eltis|first=David|title=The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|isbn=9780521652315|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|title=Extending the Frontiers: Essays on the New Transatlantic Slave Trade Database|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2008|isbn=9780300134360|editor-last=Eltis|editor-first=David|location=New Haven|editor-last2=Richardson|editor-first2=David}} * {{Cite book|last=Emmer|first=Pieter C.|title=The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580–1880. Trade, Slavery and Emancipation|publisher=Variorum|year=1998|isbn=9780860786979|series=Variorum Collected Studies Series|volume=CS614|location=Aldershot}} * {{Cite book|last=French|first=Howard|title=Born in Blackness: Africa, Africans, and the Making of the Modern World, 1471 to the Second World War|publisher=Liveright Publishing|year=2021|isbn=978-1-63149-582-3|location=New York|oclc=1268921040}} * {{Cite book|last=Green|first=Toby|title=The Rise of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade in Western Africa, 1300–1589|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2012|isbn=9781107014367|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last=Guasco|first=Michael|title=Slaves and Englishmen: Human Bondage in the Early Modern Atlantic|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|year=2014|isbn=9780812245783|location=Philadelphia}} * {{Cite book|last=Hall|first=Gwendolyn Midlo|title=Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links|publisher=University of North Carolina Press|year=2006|isbn=0-8078-2973-0|location=Chapel Hill, NC|author-link=}} * {{Cite book|last1=Heywood|first1=Linda|title=Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Foundation of the Americas, 1585–1660|last2=Thornton|first2=John K.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last=Horne|first=Gerald|title=The Deepest South: The United States, Brazil, and the African Slave Trade|publisher=New York University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8147-3688-3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abvkqNGSTZ0C|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade: Effects on Economies, Societies and Peoples in Africa, the Americas, and Europe|publisher=Duke University Press|year=1992|isbn=0-8223-8237-7|editor-last=Inikori|editor-first=Joseph E.|editor-last2=Engerman|editor-first2=Stanley L.}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Jensen |first1=Niklas Thode |last2=Simonsen |first2=Gunvor |year=2016 |title=Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950–2016 |journal=Scandinavian Journal of History |volume=41 |issue=4–5 |pages=475–494 |doi=10.1080/03468755.2016.1210880 |doi-access=free}} * {{Cite journal |last=Landers |first=Jane |date=1984 |title=Spanish Sanctuary: Fugitives in Florida, 1687–1790 |journal=Florida Historical Quarterly |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=296–313 |jstor=30146288}} * {{Cite book|last=Lindsay|first=Lisa A.|title=Captives as Commodities: The Transatlantic Slave Trade|publisher=Prentice Hall|year=2008|isbn=978-0-13-194215-8}} * {{Cite book|last=McMillin|first=James A.|title=The Final Victims: Foreign Slave Trade to North America, 1783–1810|date=2004|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-546-3}} {{endash}} Includes database on CD-ROM. * {{Cite book|last=Meltzer|first=Milton|title=Slavery: A World History|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=1993|isbn=0-306-80536-7|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last=Miller|first=Christopher L.|title=The French Atlantic Triangle: Literature and Culture of the Slave Trade|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8223-4127-7|location=Durham, NC}} * {{Cite book|last1=Nimako|first1=Kwame|title=The Dutch Atlantic: Slavery, Abolition and Emancipation|last2=Willemsen|first2=Glenn|publisher=Pluto Press|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7453-3108-9|location=London}} * {{Cite book|last1=Newson|first1=Linda|title=From Capture to Sale: The Portuguese Slave Trade to Spanish South America in the Early Seventeenth Century|last2=Minchin|first2=Susie|publisher=Brill|year=2007|isbn=9789004156791|location=Leiden}} * {{Cite book|title=The Atlantic Slave Trade|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage|year=2010|isbn=978-0-618-64356-1|editor-last=Northrup|editor-first=David|location=Independence, KY}} * {{Cite book|last1=Rawley|first1=James A.|title=The Transatlantic Slave Trade: A History|last2=Behrendt|first2=Stephen D.|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|year=2005|isbn=9780803239616|edition=Rev.}} * {{Cite book|last=Rediker|first=Marcus|title=The Slave Ship: A Human History|publisher=Penguin Books|year=2008|isbn=978-0-14-311425-3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last=Rodney|first=Walter|title=How Europe Underdeveloped Africa|publisher=Howard University Press|year=1981|isbn=0-88258-096-5|edition=Revised|location=Washington, DC}} * {{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Emancipation and Abolition in the Transatlantic World|publisher=M. E. Sharpe|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7656-1257-1|editor-last=Rodriguez|editor-first=Junius P.|location=Armonk, NY}} * {{Cite book|last=Smallwood|first=Stephanie E.|title=Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-674-03068-8|location=Cambridge, MA}} * {{Cite journal |last=Schultz |first=Kara |year=2015 |title=The Kingdom of Angola is not very far from here: The South Atlantic Slave Port of Buenos Aires, 1585–1640 |journal=Slavery & Abolition |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=424–444 |doi=10.1080/0144039X.2015.1067397}} * {{Cite book|title=Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1991|isbn=0-521-40090-2|editor-last=Solow|editor-first=Barbara|location=Cambridge}} * {{Cite book |last=Thomas |first=Hugh |title=The Slave Trade: The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440–1870 |publisher=Picador |year=1997 |isbn=0-330-35437-X |location=London}} * {{Cite book |last=Wheat |first=David |title=Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, 1570–1640 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |year=2016 |isbn=9781469623412 |location=Chapel Hill}} * {{Cite journal |last=Wheat |first=David |date=March 2011 |title=The First Great Waves: African Provenance Zones for the Transatlantic Slave Trade to Cartagena de Indias |journal=Journal of African History |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.1017/S0021853711000119 |jstor=23017646}} * {{Cite web |last=Poulter |first=Emma |title=Slave-grown cotton in Greater Manchester museums |url=http://www.revealinghistories.org.uk/how-did-money-from-slavery-help-develop-greater-manchester/articles/slave-grown-cotton-in-greater-manchester-museums.html |website=Revealing Histories, Remembering Slavery}} * {{Cite web |title=Afro Atlantic Histories resource |url=https://www.nga.gov/learn/teachers/lessons-activities/afro-atlantic-histories.html |website=National Gallery of Art |location=Washington, DC}} == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q105993844|c=Category:Atlantic slave trade|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=Atlantic slave trade|m=no|mw=no|s=On the Horrors of the Slave Trade|wikt=no|species=no}} <!--===========================({{NoMoreLinks}})===============================--> <!--| DO NOT ADD MORE LINKS TO THIS ARTICLE. 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Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] dt1pjb69ersnc6dxhmnuj46mtfhethc 67139 67138 2025-06-29T17:04:21Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Death den succession */ 67139 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] g7aylnxhzspixaspzvevqi1gq04kbjd 67140 67139 2025-06-29T17:05:50Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'History wey dem dey show' 67140 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] k7clo26gjvv2xc65myyhuk29e3y0hnj 67141 67140 2025-06-29T17:07:27Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* History wey dem dey show */ 67141 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] jevyu601ya10tlol70tq8zkgqwo7ye6 67142 67141 2025-06-29T17:08:15Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* History wey dem dey show */ I don add de sub-header 'Angolan' 67142 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] 9pxwawvxlngdi1n2bss9rcvln6o5cze 67143 67142 2025-06-29T17:11:34Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Angolan */ 67143 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] 5mrievmpcrao4k0t3noi42vwpuox992 67144 67143 2025-06-29T17:12:26Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* History wey dem dey show */ I don add de sub-header 'Portuguese' 67144 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] k76sf1jd7tt1fv7ptc6rp4hgtpl19cd 67145 67144 2025-06-29T17:15:10Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Portuguese */ 67145 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] ajelugd75cdlx3mnd7e1ai8pdg3291s 67146 67145 2025-06-29T17:16:10Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* History wey dem dey show */ I don add de sub-header 'Western' 67146 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] 6ci46o6peno3ct8yy4bhlwzec67dqv1 67147 67146 2025-06-29T17:20:39Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Western */ 67147 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] e1q4y22jsz1jofbdn7qylkth58smat4 67148 67147 2025-06-29T17:28:58Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Western */ 67148 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> Nzinga get plenty hype for the West during 20th century. People dey use am as symbol for Angola Independence war plus e make dem wan know more about her life.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Joseph C. Miller drop one essay for 1975 De Journal of African History wey everybody sabi, e talk about her wahala and she sabi but e still knack her for her dictator ways.<ref name=":85">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> Afro-Cuban poet Georgina Herrera write one sweet poem for 1978 wey dey praise Nzinga wisdom plus join her culture with Afro-Caribbeans for America.<ref name=":35" /> American feminist writer Aurora Levins Morales talk about Nzinga too, e dey hail her courage against colonialism plus patriarchy but e still dey criticize her as ruling class plus how she dey push slave trade.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|last=Levins Morales|first=Aurora|title=Medicine Stories: Essays for Radicals|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003090|edition=Revised & Expanded|pages=79}}</ref> For him writings about Nzinga, American historian John Thornton focus on how she dey struggle all her life to show her authority for Mbundu culture. E talk say her legendary fame and actions help create broader Atlantic Creole culture.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Linda Heywood write big biography about Nzinga for 2017, wey show plenty about ein life plus describe her as serious historical figure.<ref name=":35" /> Heywood warn make we no dey see Nzinga as just populist hero or tyrant,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8255/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> but make we fit see her as person wey complicate wey use culture, diplomacy, religion, plus war to secure den protect em kingdom.<ref name=":35" /> == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] g258knb7sc4ecnu1lhnjrqj9964e0vi 67149 67148 2025-06-29T17:31:51Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* History wey dem dey show */ I don add de sub-header 'Legendary accounts' 67149 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> Nzinga get plenty hype for the West during 20th century. People dey use am as symbol for Angola Independence war plus e make dem wan know more about her life.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Joseph C. Miller drop one essay for 1975 De Journal of African History wey everybody sabi, e talk about her wahala and she sabi but e still knack her for her dictator ways.<ref name=":85">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> Afro-Cuban poet Georgina Herrera write one sweet poem for 1978 wey dey praise Nzinga wisdom plus join her culture with Afro-Caribbeans for America.<ref name=":35" /> American feminist writer Aurora Levins Morales talk about Nzinga too, e dey hail her courage against colonialism plus patriarchy but e still dey criticize her as ruling class plus how she dey push slave trade.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|last=Levins Morales|first=Aurora|title=Medicine Stories: Essays for Radicals|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003090|edition=Revised & Expanded|pages=79}}</ref> For him writings about Nzinga, American historian John Thornton focus on how she dey struggle all her life to show her authority for Mbundu culture. E talk say her legendary fame and actions help create broader Atlantic Creole culture.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Linda Heywood write big biography about Nzinga for 2017, wey show plenty about ein life plus describe her as serious historical figure.<ref name=":35" /> Heywood warn make we no dey see Nzinga as just populist hero or tyrant,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8255/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> but make we fit see her as person wey complicate wey use culture, diplomacy, religion, plus war to secure den protect em kingdom.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Legendary accounts ===== == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] md42gdywzw2ki47p5k6822bxnavfd95 67150 67149 2025-06-29T17:37:24Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Legendary accounts */ 67150 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> Nzinga get plenty hype for the West during 20th century. People dey use am as symbol for Angola Independence war plus e make dem wan know more about her life.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Joseph C. Miller drop one essay for 1975 De Journal of African History wey everybody sabi, e talk about her wahala and she sabi but e still knack her for her dictator ways.<ref name=":85">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> Afro-Cuban poet Georgina Herrera write one sweet poem for 1978 wey dey praise Nzinga wisdom plus join her culture with Afro-Caribbeans for America.<ref name=":35" /> American feminist writer Aurora Levins Morales talk about Nzinga too, e dey hail her courage against colonialism plus patriarchy but e still dey criticize her as ruling class plus how she dey push slave trade.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|last=Levins Morales|first=Aurora|title=Medicine Stories: Essays for Radicals|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003090|edition=Revised & Expanded|pages=79}}</ref> For him writings about Nzinga, American historian John Thornton focus on how she dey struggle all her life to show her authority for Mbundu culture. E talk say her legendary fame and actions help create broader Atlantic Creole culture.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Linda Heywood write big biography about Nzinga for 2017, wey show plenty about ein life plus describe her as serious historical figure.<ref name=":35" /> Heywood warn make we no dey see Nzinga as just populist hero or tyrant,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8255/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> but make we fit see her as person wey complicate wey use culture, diplomacy, religion, plus war to secure den protect em kingdom.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Legendary accounts ===== One legend talk say Nzinga dey kill her lovers. She dey keep like 50-60 men wey she de dress dem like woman, as her harem,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belys|first=Rudi C.|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|year=1995|pages=33}}</ref> Dem go dey fight to die so dem fit spend night with her. for de morning, de winner go still chop death.<ref name=":210">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=bachmann|date=18 November 2013|title=The Enigmatic Queen Nzinga of Ndongo|url=https://blogs.harvard.edu/preserving/2013/11/18/the-enigmatic-queen-nzinga-of-ndongo/|access-date=1 November 2020|website=The Shelf|language=en-US}}</ref> As Capuchin priest Cavazzi talk am, Nzinga dey maintain her strength even wen she old. Wen he see her for military review for 1662 (de year before she die), Cavazzi praise her agility, plus de old queen yarn say, for her young days, she fit injure any Imbangala warrior, plus she go fit stand against 25 armed men - unless dem get musket.<ref name=":402">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] oyoyvai52bitjip0aqws983oo7wp8qv 67151 67150 2025-06-29T17:38:27Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Legacy' 67151 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> Nzinga get plenty hype for the West during 20th century. People dey use am as symbol for Angola Independence war plus e make dem wan know more about her life.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Joseph C. Miller drop one essay for 1975 De Journal of African History wey everybody sabi, e talk about her wahala and she sabi but e still knack her for her dictator ways.<ref name=":85">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> Afro-Cuban poet Georgina Herrera write one sweet poem for 1978 wey dey praise Nzinga wisdom plus join her culture with Afro-Caribbeans for America.<ref name=":35" /> American feminist writer Aurora Levins Morales talk about Nzinga too, e dey hail her courage against colonialism plus patriarchy but e still dey criticize her as ruling class plus how she dey push slave trade.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|last=Levins Morales|first=Aurora|title=Medicine Stories: Essays for Radicals|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003090|edition=Revised & Expanded|pages=79}}</ref> For him writings about Nzinga, American historian John Thornton focus on how she dey struggle all her life to show her authority for Mbundu culture. E talk say her legendary fame and actions help create broader Atlantic Creole culture.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Linda Heywood write big biography about Nzinga for 2017, wey show plenty about ein life plus describe her as serious historical figure.<ref name=":35" /> Heywood warn make we no dey see Nzinga as just populist hero or tyrant,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8255/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> but make we fit see her as person wey complicate wey use culture, diplomacy, religion, plus war to secure den protect em kingdom.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Legendary accounts ===== One legend talk say Nzinga dey kill her lovers. She dey keep like 50-60 men wey she de dress dem like woman, as her harem,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belys|first=Rudi C.|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|year=1995|pages=33}}</ref> Dem go dey fight to die so dem fit spend night with her. for de morning, de winner go still chop death.<ref name=":210">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=bachmann|date=18 November 2013|title=The Enigmatic Queen Nzinga of Ndongo|url=https://blogs.harvard.edu/preserving/2013/11/18/the-enigmatic-queen-nzinga-of-ndongo/|access-date=1 November 2020|website=The Shelf|language=en-US}}</ref> As Capuchin priest Cavazzi talk am, Nzinga dey maintain her strength even wen she old. Wen he see her for military review for 1662 (de year before she die), Cavazzi praise her agility, plus de old queen yarn say, for her young days, she fit injure any Imbangala warrior, plus she go fit stand against 25 armed men - unless dem get musket.<ref name=":402">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> == Legacy == == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] jstuk5zvok3xs6bz1jm4b49jrbw4gax 67152 67151 2025-06-29T17:45:45Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Legacy */ 67152 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> Nzinga get plenty hype for the West during 20th century. People dey use am as symbol for Angola Independence war plus e make dem wan know more about her life.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Joseph C. Miller drop one essay for 1975 De Journal of African History wey everybody sabi, e talk about her wahala and she sabi but e still knack her for her dictator ways.<ref name=":85">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> Afro-Cuban poet Georgina Herrera write one sweet poem for 1978 wey dey praise Nzinga wisdom plus join her culture with Afro-Caribbeans for America.<ref name=":35" /> American feminist writer Aurora Levins Morales talk about Nzinga too, e dey hail her courage against colonialism plus patriarchy but e still dey criticize her as ruling class plus how she dey push slave trade.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|last=Levins Morales|first=Aurora|title=Medicine Stories: Essays for Radicals|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003090|edition=Revised & Expanded|pages=79}}</ref> For him writings about Nzinga, American historian John Thornton focus on how she dey struggle all her life to show her authority for Mbundu culture. E talk say her legendary fame and actions help create broader Atlantic Creole culture.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Linda Heywood write big biography about Nzinga for 2017, wey show plenty about ein life plus describe her as serious historical figure.<ref name=":35" /> Heywood warn make we no dey see Nzinga as just populist hero or tyrant,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8255/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> but make we fit see her as person wey complicate wey use culture, diplomacy, religion, plus war to secure den protect em kingdom.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Legendary accounts ===== One legend talk say Nzinga dey kill her lovers. She dey keep like 50-60 men wey she de dress dem like woman, as her harem,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belys|first=Rudi C.|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|year=1995|pages=33}}</ref> Dem go dey fight to die so dem fit spend night with her. for de morning, de winner go still chop death.<ref name=":210">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=bachmann|date=18 November 2013|title=The Enigmatic Queen Nzinga of Ndongo|url=https://blogs.harvard.edu/preserving/2013/11/18/the-enigmatic-queen-nzinga-of-ndongo/|access-date=1 November 2020|website=The Shelf|language=en-US}}</ref> As Capuchin priest Cavazzi talk am, Nzinga dey maintain her strength even wen she old. Wen he see her for military review for 1662 (de year before she die), Cavazzi praise her agility, plus de old queen yarn say, for her young days, she fit injure any Imbangala warrior, plus she go fit stand against 25 armed men - unless dem get musket.<ref name=":402">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> == Legacy == [[File:Nzingambande.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzingambande.jpg|right|thumb|Statue for [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], [[:en:Angola|Angola]]]] Today, dem dey remember am for Angola as Mama of Angola, de negotiator wey sabi fight, plus de protector for her people. Even for de whole Africa, dem still dey respect am as fine leader plus woman, for her political sense den diplomacy, plus her sharp military tactics.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20193">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> dem dey tell plenty story about her life wey sweet pass, plus she be symbol for de fight against oppression.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzingha fit make di state accept her power, e no easy o! But e dey survive plenty attacks plus gather strong supporters wey really help am shine. Though for her time, Njinga still sabi say dem no go gree say woman fit rule Ndongo, she has to 'turn male' to hold power. But her female successors no get wahala to fit rule, dem accept dem whole heartedly .<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] 9y5tc1d8fop62obyh8tz5llt96qc7hk 67153 67152 2025-06-29T17:50:59Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Legacy */ 67153 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> Nzinga get plenty hype for the West during 20th century. People dey use am as symbol for Angola Independence war plus e make dem wan know more about her life.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Joseph C. Miller drop one essay for 1975 De Journal of African History wey everybody sabi, e talk about her wahala and she sabi but e still knack her for her dictator ways.<ref name=":85">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> Afro-Cuban poet Georgina Herrera write one sweet poem for 1978 wey dey praise Nzinga wisdom plus join her culture with Afro-Caribbeans for America.<ref name=":35" /> American feminist writer Aurora Levins Morales talk about Nzinga too, e dey hail her courage against colonialism plus patriarchy but e still dey criticize her as ruling class plus how she dey push slave trade.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|last=Levins Morales|first=Aurora|title=Medicine Stories: Essays for Radicals|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003090|edition=Revised & Expanded|pages=79}}</ref> For him writings about Nzinga, American historian John Thornton focus on how she dey struggle all her life to show her authority for Mbundu culture. E talk say her legendary fame and actions help create broader Atlantic Creole culture.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Linda Heywood write big biography about Nzinga for 2017, wey show plenty about ein life plus describe her as serious historical figure.<ref name=":35" /> Heywood warn make we no dey see Nzinga as just populist hero or tyrant,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8255/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> but make we fit see her as person wey complicate wey use culture, diplomacy, religion, plus war to secure den protect em kingdom.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Legendary accounts ===== One legend talk say Nzinga dey kill her lovers. She dey keep like 50-60 men wey she de dress dem like woman, as her harem,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belys|first=Rudi C.|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|year=1995|pages=33}}</ref> Dem go dey fight to die so dem fit spend night with her. for de morning, de winner go still chop death.<ref name=":210">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=bachmann|date=18 November 2013|title=The Enigmatic Queen Nzinga of Ndongo|url=https://blogs.harvard.edu/preserving/2013/11/18/the-enigmatic-queen-nzinga-of-ndongo/|access-date=1 November 2020|website=The Shelf|language=en-US}}</ref> As Capuchin priest Cavazzi talk am, Nzinga dey maintain her strength even wen she old. Wen he see her for military review for 1662 (de year before she die), Cavazzi praise her agility, plus de old queen yarn say, for her young days, she fit injure any Imbangala warrior, plus she go fit stand against 25 armed men - unless dem get musket.<ref name=":402">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> == Legacy == [[File:Nzingambande.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzingambande.jpg|right|thumb|Statue for [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], [[:en:Angola|Angola]]]] Today, dem dey remember am for Angola as Mama of Angola, de negotiator wey sabi fight, plus de protector for her people. Even for de whole Africa, dem still dey respect am as fine leader plus woman, for her political sense den diplomacy, plus her sharp military tactics.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20193">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> dem dey tell plenty story about her life wey sweet pass, plus she be symbol for de fight against oppression.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzingha fit make di state accept her power, e no easy o! But e dey survive plenty attacks plus gather strong supporters wey really help am shine. Though for her time, Njinga still sabi say dem no go gree say woman fit rule Ndongo, she has to 'turn male' to hold power. But her female successors no get wahala to fit rule, dem accept dem whole heartedly .<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De smart way she use her gender plus her political sense help set solid ground for de future leaders of Ndongo wey dey today. For di 104 years after Njinga die for 1663, queens dey rule for at least eighty of dem. Nzingha be model for leadership wey all de generations of Angolan women dey look up to. Women for Angola today show plenty social independence and dem dey inside de country army, police, government, plus public plus private business sectors.<ref name=":53">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> Nzingha become symbol of de People’s Movement for de Liberation of Angola for de time of de civil war.<ref name=":310">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> One big road for Luanda dem name after am, plus dem place statue for Kinaxixi for one fine square for 2002,<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20194">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> wey President Santos dedicate to mark 27 years of independence. People dey hail am, historian Scholastique Dianzinga talk say e dey help make women dey represent well for public monuments.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Badawi|first=Zeinab|url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/An_African_History_of_Africa/7PzLEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Scholastique+Dianzinga&pg=PT237&printsec=frontcover|title=An African History of Africa: Instant Sunday Times bestseller and shortlisted for the Nero Book Awards|date=2024-04-18|publisher=Ebury Publishing|isbn=978-0-7535-6015-0|language=en}}</ref> Angolan women dey like marry near de statue, especially for Thursdays den Fridays. == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] oijdtzp7435wupeddmkyxx1s9u9cowf 67155 67153 2025-06-29T17:59:00Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Legacy */ 67155 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> Nzinga get plenty hype for the West during 20th century. People dey use am as symbol for Angola Independence war plus e make dem wan know more about her life.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Joseph C. Miller drop one essay for 1975 De Journal of African History wey everybody sabi, e talk about her wahala and she sabi but e still knack her for her dictator ways.<ref name=":85">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> Afro-Cuban poet Georgina Herrera write one sweet poem for 1978 wey dey praise Nzinga wisdom plus join her culture with Afro-Caribbeans for America.<ref name=":35" /> American feminist writer Aurora Levins Morales talk about Nzinga too, e dey hail her courage against colonialism plus patriarchy but e still dey criticize her as ruling class plus how she dey push slave trade.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|last=Levins Morales|first=Aurora|title=Medicine Stories: Essays for Radicals|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003090|edition=Revised & Expanded|pages=79}}</ref> For him writings about Nzinga, American historian John Thornton focus on how she dey struggle all her life to show her authority for Mbundu culture. E talk say her legendary fame and actions help create broader Atlantic Creole culture.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Linda Heywood write big biography about Nzinga for 2017, wey show plenty about ein life plus describe her as serious historical figure.<ref name=":35" /> Heywood warn make we no dey see Nzinga as just populist hero or tyrant,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8255/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> but make we fit see her as person wey complicate wey use culture, diplomacy, religion, plus war to secure den protect em kingdom.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Legendary accounts ===== One legend talk say Nzinga dey kill her lovers. She dey keep like 50-60 men wey she de dress dem like woman, as her harem,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belys|first=Rudi C.|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|year=1995|pages=33}}</ref> Dem go dey fight to die so dem fit spend night with her. for de morning, de winner go still chop death.<ref name=":210">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=bachmann|date=18 November 2013|title=The Enigmatic Queen Nzinga of Ndongo|url=https://blogs.harvard.edu/preserving/2013/11/18/the-enigmatic-queen-nzinga-of-ndongo/|access-date=1 November 2020|website=The Shelf|language=en-US}}</ref> As Capuchin priest Cavazzi talk am, Nzinga dey maintain her strength even wen she old. Wen he see her for military review for 1662 (de year before she die), Cavazzi praise her agility, plus de old queen yarn say, for her young days, she fit injure any Imbangala warrior, plus she go fit stand against 25 armed men - unless dem get musket.<ref name=":402">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> == Legacy == [[File:Nzingambande.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzingambande.jpg|right|thumb|Statue for [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], [[:en:Angola|Angola]]]] Today, dem dey remember am for Angola as Mama of Angola, de negotiator wey sabi fight, plus de protector for her people. Even for de whole Africa, dem still dey respect am as fine leader plus woman, for her political sense den diplomacy, plus her sharp military tactics.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20193">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> dem dey tell plenty story about her life wey sweet pass, plus she be symbol for de fight against oppression.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzingha fit make di state accept her power, e no easy o! But e dey survive plenty attacks plus gather strong supporters wey really help am shine. Though for her time, Njinga still sabi say dem no go gree say woman fit rule Ndongo, she has to 'turn male' to hold power. But her female successors no get wahala to fit rule, dem accept dem whole heartedly .<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De smart way she use her gender plus her political sense help set solid ground for de future leaders of Ndongo wey dey today. For de 104 years after Njinga die for 1663, queens dey rule for at least eighty of dem. Nzingha be model for leadership wey all de generations of Angolan women dey look up to. Women for Angola today show plenty social independence and dem dey inside de country army, police, government, plus public plus private business sectors.<ref name=":53">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> Nzingha become symbol of de People’s Movement for de Liberation of Angola for de time of de civil war.<ref name=":310">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> One big road for Luanda dem name after am, plus dem place statue for Kinaxixi for one fine square for 2002,<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20194">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> wey President Santos dedicate to mark 27 years of independence.{{Cn|date=January 2025}} People dey hail am, historian Scholastique Dianzinga talk say e dey help make women dey represent well for public monuments.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Badawi|first=Zeinab|url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/An_African_History_of_Africa/7PzLEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Scholastique+Dianzinga&pg=PT237&printsec=frontcover|title=An African History of Africa: Instant Sunday Times bestseller and shortlisted for the Nero Book Awards|date=2024-04-18|publisher=Ebury Publishing|isbn=978-0-7535-6015-0|language=en}}</ref> Angolan women dey like marry near de statue, especially for Thursdays den Fridays.{{Cn|date=January 2025}} On 23 December 2014, National Reserve Bank of Angola (BNA) drop one 20 Kwanza coin to show respect for Nzingha for how she stand fit defend her people identity plus self-determination.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-395099604.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911012552/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-395099604.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2016|title=Angola to Launch New Kwanza Coins in 2015|date=26 December 2014|work=Mena Report|url-access=subscription|access-date=26 June 2016|via=HighBeam Research}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|access-date=13 April 2021|url=http://www.bna.ao:80/Conteudos/Artigos/detalhe_artigo.aspx?idc=139&idsc=266&idl=1&idi=14206|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230103617/http://www.bna.ao/Conteudos/Artigos/detalhe_artigo.aspx?idc=139&idsc=266&idl=1&idi=14206|url-status=live|archive-date=30 December 2014|title=Lançamento da moeda de 20 Kwanzas (Launch of 20 Kwanza coin)|date=22 December 2014}}</ref> One Angolan film wey dem call [[:en:Njinga:_Queen_Of_Angola|Njinga: Queen Of Angola]] (for Portuguese dem dey call am Njinga, Rainha de Angola) drop for 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|date=6 November 2014|title=Njinga, Queen of Angola (Njinga, Rainha de Angola) UK Premiere|url=http://www.filmafrica.org.uk/njingha-queen-of-angola-njinga-rainha-de-angola-uk-premiere/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812130257/http://www.filmafrica.org.uk/njingha-queen-of-angola-njinga-rainha-de-angola-uk-premiere/|archive-date=12 August 2016|access-date=23 June 2016|website=Royal African Society's Annual Film Festival}}</ref> Dem dey work on Queen Nzinga wey be Starz series, Yetide Badaki go play de main role. 50 Cent, Steven S. DeKnight plus Mo Abundu na dem be producers.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 December 2021|title=Yetide Badaki To Star In African Warrior Queen Nzinga Drama Series In The Works At Starz From 50 Cent, Mo Abudu & Steven S. DeKnight|url=https://deadline.com/2021/12/queen-nzinga-yetide-badaki-starz-50-cent-1234892198/|access-date=16 December 2021|website=[[Deadline Hollywood|Deadline]]}}</ref> Nzinga (we sabi am as Nzinga Mbande) dey lead Kongolese civilization for 2016 4X video game Civilization VI, since dem bring out Great Negotiators for 21 November 2022, as part of de DLC 'Leader Pass'. 2023 Netflix docudrama African Queens: Njinga dey show her life, e dey act am like wetin happen for history.<ref>{{cite web|title=Watch African Queens: Njinga &#124; Netflix Official Site|url=https://www.netflix.com/title/81650731|website=[[Netflix]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=African Queens: Njinga (TV Series 2023– ) – IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt15305648/|website=[[IMDb]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=15 February 2023|title=The Story Behind the Netflix Series African Queens: Njinga|url=https://time.com/6256012/african-queens-njinga-true-story/}}</ref> == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] pu6qgbmedhgcnc5iifi6cglig1yu83h 67156 67155 2025-06-29T17:59:57Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Check am too' 67156 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> Nzinga get plenty hype for the West during 20th century. People dey use am as symbol for Angola Independence war plus e make dem wan know more about her life.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Joseph C. Miller drop one essay for 1975 De Journal of African History wey everybody sabi, e talk about her wahala and she sabi but e still knack her for her dictator ways.<ref name=":85">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> Afro-Cuban poet Georgina Herrera write one sweet poem for 1978 wey dey praise Nzinga wisdom plus join her culture with Afro-Caribbeans for America.<ref name=":35" /> American feminist writer Aurora Levins Morales talk about Nzinga too, e dey hail her courage against colonialism plus patriarchy but e still dey criticize her as ruling class plus how she dey push slave trade.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|last=Levins Morales|first=Aurora|title=Medicine Stories: Essays for Radicals|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003090|edition=Revised & Expanded|pages=79}}</ref> For him writings about Nzinga, American historian John Thornton focus on how she dey struggle all her life to show her authority for Mbundu culture. E talk say her legendary fame and actions help create broader Atlantic Creole culture.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Linda Heywood write big biography about Nzinga for 2017, wey show plenty about ein life plus describe her as serious historical figure.<ref name=":35" /> Heywood warn make we no dey see Nzinga as just populist hero or tyrant,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8255/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> but make we fit see her as person wey complicate wey use culture, diplomacy, religion, plus war to secure den protect em kingdom.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Legendary accounts ===== One legend talk say Nzinga dey kill her lovers. She dey keep like 50-60 men wey she de dress dem like woman, as her harem,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belys|first=Rudi C.|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|year=1995|pages=33}}</ref> Dem go dey fight to die so dem fit spend night with her. for de morning, de winner go still chop death.<ref name=":210">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=bachmann|date=18 November 2013|title=The Enigmatic Queen Nzinga of Ndongo|url=https://blogs.harvard.edu/preserving/2013/11/18/the-enigmatic-queen-nzinga-of-ndongo/|access-date=1 November 2020|website=The Shelf|language=en-US}}</ref> As Capuchin priest Cavazzi talk am, Nzinga dey maintain her strength even wen she old. Wen he see her for military review for 1662 (de year before she die), Cavazzi praise her agility, plus de old queen yarn say, for her young days, she fit injure any Imbangala warrior, plus she go fit stand against 25 armed men - unless dem get musket.<ref name=":402">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> == Legacy == [[File:Nzingambande.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzingambande.jpg|right|thumb|Statue for [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], [[:en:Angola|Angola]]]] Today, dem dey remember am for Angola as Mama of Angola, de negotiator wey sabi fight, plus de protector for her people. Even for de whole Africa, dem still dey respect am as fine leader plus woman, for her political sense den diplomacy, plus her sharp military tactics.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20193">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> dem dey tell plenty story about her life wey sweet pass, plus she be symbol for de fight against oppression.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzingha fit make di state accept her power, e no easy o! But e dey survive plenty attacks plus gather strong supporters wey really help am shine. Though for her time, Njinga still sabi say dem no go gree say woman fit rule Ndongo, she has to 'turn male' to hold power. But her female successors no get wahala to fit rule, dem accept dem whole heartedly .<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De smart way she use her gender plus her political sense help set solid ground for de future leaders of Ndongo wey dey today. For de 104 years after Njinga die for 1663, queens dey rule for at least eighty of dem. Nzingha be model for leadership wey all de generations of Angolan women dey look up to. Women for Angola today show plenty social independence and dem dey inside de country army, police, government, plus public plus private business sectors.<ref name=":53">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> Nzingha become symbol of de People’s Movement for de Liberation of Angola for de time of de civil war.<ref name=":310">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> One big road for Luanda dem name after am, plus dem place statue for Kinaxixi for one fine square for 2002,<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20194">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> wey President Santos dedicate to mark 27 years of independence.{{Cn|date=January 2025}} People dey hail am, historian Scholastique Dianzinga talk say e dey help make women dey represent well for public monuments.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Badawi|first=Zeinab|url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/An_African_History_of_Africa/7PzLEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Scholastique+Dianzinga&pg=PT237&printsec=frontcover|title=An African History of Africa: Instant Sunday Times bestseller and shortlisted for the Nero Book Awards|date=2024-04-18|publisher=Ebury Publishing|isbn=978-0-7535-6015-0|language=en}}</ref> Angolan women dey like marry near de statue, especially for Thursdays den Fridays.{{Cn|date=January 2025}} On 23 December 2014, National Reserve Bank of Angola (BNA) drop one 20 Kwanza coin to show respect for Nzingha for how she stand fit defend her people identity plus self-determination.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-395099604.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911012552/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-395099604.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2016|title=Angola to Launch New Kwanza Coins in 2015|date=26 December 2014|work=Mena Report|url-access=subscription|access-date=26 June 2016|via=HighBeam Research}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|access-date=13 April 2021|url=http://www.bna.ao:80/Conteudos/Artigos/detalhe_artigo.aspx?idc=139&idsc=266&idl=1&idi=14206|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230103617/http://www.bna.ao/Conteudos/Artigos/detalhe_artigo.aspx?idc=139&idsc=266&idl=1&idi=14206|url-status=live|archive-date=30 December 2014|title=Lançamento da moeda de 20 Kwanzas (Launch of 20 Kwanza coin)|date=22 December 2014}}</ref> One Angolan film wey dem call [[:en:Njinga:_Queen_Of_Angola|Njinga: Queen Of Angola]] (for Portuguese dem dey call am Njinga, Rainha de Angola) drop for 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|date=6 November 2014|title=Njinga, Queen of Angola (Njinga, Rainha de Angola) UK Premiere|url=http://www.filmafrica.org.uk/njingha-queen-of-angola-njinga-rainha-de-angola-uk-premiere/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812130257/http://www.filmafrica.org.uk/njingha-queen-of-angola-njinga-rainha-de-angola-uk-premiere/|archive-date=12 August 2016|access-date=23 June 2016|website=Royal African Society's Annual Film Festival}}</ref> Dem dey work on Queen Nzinga wey be Starz series, Yetide Badaki go play de main role. 50 Cent, Steven S. DeKnight plus Mo Abundu na dem be producers.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 December 2021|title=Yetide Badaki To Star In African Warrior Queen Nzinga Drama Series In The Works At Starz From 50 Cent, Mo Abudu & Steven S. DeKnight|url=https://deadline.com/2021/12/queen-nzinga-yetide-badaki-starz-50-cent-1234892198/|access-date=16 December 2021|website=[[Deadline Hollywood|Deadline]]}}</ref> Nzinga (we sabi am as Nzinga Mbande) dey lead Kongolese civilization for 2016 4X video game Civilization VI, since dem bring out Great Negotiators for 21 November 2022, as part of de DLC 'Leader Pass'. 2023 Netflix docudrama African Queens: Njinga dey show her life, e dey act am like wetin happen for history.<ref>{{cite web|title=Watch African Queens: Njinga &#124; Netflix Official Site|url=https://www.netflix.com/title/81650731|website=[[Netflix]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=African Queens: Njinga (TV Series 2023– ) – IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt15305648/|website=[[IMDb]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=15 February 2023|title=The Story Behind the Netflix Series African Queens: Njinga|url=https://time.com/6256012/african-queens-njinga-true-story/}}</ref> == Check am too == == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] hsnn83byr6db3fx3s6udweh1lcfkx29 67157 67156 2025-06-29T18:01:27Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Check am too */ 67157 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Nzinga Ana de Sousa Mbande''' (/nəˈzɪŋɡə/; {{circa|1583}} – 17 December 1663) na he be a southwest African paramount ruler wey rule as a queen of de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) den Matamba (1631–1663), wey dey locate insyd present-day northern Angola.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Na dem born am into de ruling family of Ndongo, na ein grandpoppie Ngola Kilombo Kia Kasenda be de king of Ndongo, wey na ein poppie succeed. Na Njinga receive military den political training as a kiddie, wey na she demonstrate an aptitude for defusing political crises as an ambassador to de Portuguese Empire. Insyd 1624, na she assume power over Ndongo after de death of ein brother Mbandi. Na she rule during a period of rapid growth of de [[Slavery in Africa|African slave trade]] den encroachment by de Portuguese Empire insyd South West Africa.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Snethen|first=J|date=16 June 2009|title=Queen Nzinga (1583–1663)|url=https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215216/https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=BlackPast}}</ref> Na de Portuguese declare war on Ndongo insyd 1626 den by 1628, na Njinga ein army be severely depleted wey na dem go into exile. In search of allies, na she marry Imbangala warlord Kasanje. Dey use ein dis new alliance make she rebuild ein forces, na she conquer de Kingdom of Matamba from 1631 to 1635. Insyd 1641, she enter into an alliance plus de Dutch West India Company wey na dem capture [[Luanda]] from de Portuguese. Between 1641 den 1644, na Njinga be able make she reclaim large parts of Ndongo. Alongside de Dutch, she defeat de Portuguese insyd a number of battles buh na she no be able to take de Fortress of Massangano. Insyd 1648, na de Portuguese recapture Luanda, plus de Dutch leaving Angola. Na Njinga continue to fight de Portuguese til na dem sign a peace treaty insyd 1656.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-2019" /> Insyd de centuries since ein death, na dem increasingly recognize Njinga as a major historical figure insyd Angola den insyd de wider Atlantic Creole culture. Dem dey remember for ein intelligence, ein political den diplomatic wisdom, den ein military tactics. == Ein Early life == Njinga born for royal family of Ndongo, one Mbundu kingdom for central West Africa around 1583. She be daughter of Ngola Kilombo of Ndongo, wey be king. Her mama, Kengela ka Nkombe,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web|date=3 October 2019|title=Queens of Infamy: Njinga|url=https://longreads.com/2019/10/03/queens-of-infamy-njinga/|access-date=30 May 2020|website=Longreads|language=en}}</ref> na one of her papa slave wives,<ref name=":8">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> plus she be him favorite concubine.<ref name=":6" /> Legend talk say, the birthing no be easy for Kengela, her mama;<ref name=":6" /> na why Njinga get her name, because the umbilical cord dey wrap for her neck (for Kimbundu, kujinga mean to twist or turn). Pikin dem wey come from royal family wey go true tough or rare born, pipo dey believe say dem get spiritual gifts,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 14</ref> plus some dey reason say di way dem born fit show say dem go grow fit be powerful den proud person.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> Njinga get two sisters, Kambu (Lady Barbara) plus Funji (Lady Grace).<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref> She still get one brother, Mbandi, wey dey no say him go take de throne.<ref name=":6" /> When she dey 10 years, her papa come be de king of Ndongo.<ref name=":6" /> As small pikin, Njinga dey enjoy her papa love well well. Since dem no see am as person wey go fit take throne, she no dey compete with de boys for de family, so de king fit shower her with attention without wahala from de heirs. She dey learn military tinz, dey train as warrior wey go fight with her papa, and she sabi use battle axe well, na de weapon wey Ndongan warriors dey use.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 58-60</ref> She dey join her papa for plenty official work like legal meetings, war meetings, and important rituals.<ref name=":6" /> Plus, Njinga learn from some Portuguese missionaries wey come visit how to read and write for Portuguese.<ref name=":4">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> ===== Name variations ===== Dem dey call am “Queen” for Portuguese, Njinga Mbande get plenty names wey people sabi, including Kimbundu and Portuguese names, different spellings and plenty titles. For Portuguese and English sources, you fit see common spellings like Nzinga, Nzingha, Njinga, plus Njingha.<ref name="JW">{{cite book|last1=Wallenfeldt|first1=Jeff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9b6cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA65|title=Africa to America: From the Middle Passage Through the 1930s|date=2010|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|isbn=978-1-61530-175-1|page=65|language=en}}</ref> For colonial documents and her own writings, dem fit spell am Jinga, Ginga, Zinga, Zingua, Zhinga, and Singa.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smBVBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA48|title=Nzinga Mbandi, reine du Ndongo et du Matamba|date=2014|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-92-3-200026-2|page=48|language=en}}</ref> E dey known by her Christian name too, Ana de Sousa.<ref name="JW" /> Dis name—Anna de Souza Nzingha—na wetin dem give am when dem baptize am. Dem name her Anna after di Portuguese woman wey be her Godmother for de ceremony. She help shape who Nzingha go be for future.<ref name=":4" /> Her Christian surname, de Souza, come from di acting governor of Angola, João Correia de Souza.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stapleton|first1=Timothy J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5rZCDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopedia of African Colonial Conflicts [2 volumes]|date=2016|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-837-3|page=58|language=en}}</ref> As de monarch for Ndongo plus Matamba, dem call am Ngola Njinga for her own language. Ngola na de name wey Ndongo people dey use for ruler, plus e dey ground di name wey we sabi as 'Angola'. For Portuguese, dem sabi her as Rainha Nzinga/Zinga/Ginga (Queen Nzingha). As per di Kimbundu way wey dem dey write am now, her name be Njinga Mbandi (di 'j' be wetin dem call soft j like for Portuguese and French, while de 'n' no dey talk). De statue of Njinga wey dey for Kinaxixi square for Luanda dey call am 'Mwene Njinga Mbande'. ===== Political background ===== For dis time, Ndongo kingdom dey struggle with many wahala, mostly because of fight with Portuguese Empire. Dem Portuguese first land for Ndongo for 1575 wen dem open trading post for Luanda with Kongo help, wey be Ndongo northern enemy. Even though dem get some years wey dey calm between Ndongo plus Portugal, as time go, dem relations turn sour plus wahala jam back to back for many years. Ndongo dey face heavy military pressure from Portugal and Kongo, as dem dey grab Ndongan land. By 1580s, plenty parts of Ndongo don fall under Portuguese control. Dem dey fight war anyhow, burning villages plus taking people as hostages. On top de land dem take, dem also carry plenty slaves during de wahala (50,000 according to one source<ref name=":10">Heywood (2017) p. 27</ref>) and build forts insyde Ndongan land to manage de slave trade.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|last=Pantoja|first=Selma|year=2020|title=Njinga a Mbande: Power and War in 17th-Century Angola|url=https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-326|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History|language=en|doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.326|isbn=9780190277734}}</ref> Ndongo gather pipo to fight Portuguese, e beat dem for Battle of Lucala for 1590, but dem don lost plenty land small small. De wahala make de king lose im power well-well, as many Ndongan noblemen, di sobas, no wan pay tribute to de crown, and some dey join Portuguese side. By de time Nzingha papa become king for 1593, di area don suffer plenty from war and di king power don reduce. De king try plenty ways to fix de situation, like diplomacy, negotiation, plus open fight, but e no fit make tings beta.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":6" /> Things dey vex Ndongo when for 1607, Imbangala guys come invade de kingdom. Dem be fierce warriors wey sabi fight well well plus dey passionate for dia religion.<ref name=":11">Heywood (2017) p. 37, 38</ref><ref>Miller, Joseph C. “The Imbangala and the Chronology of Early Central African History.” ''The Journal of African History'' 13, no. 4 (1972): 549–74. {{JSTOR|180754}}.</ref> De Imbangala split dem into war groups, take over Ndongan land plus dem dey catch slaves. De Portuguese even hire some of de Imbangalans as mercenaries, plus dis wahala make Ndongan king jom mi mind, e no fit try take back him land again.<ref name=":11" /> == Succession to power == ===== Nzinga's Embassy ===== For 1617, Ngola Mbandi Kiluanji don waka come meet ancestors, plus him pikin, Ngola Mbandi, wey be Nzinga bro, come take de throne.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga Mbandi biography {{!}} Women|url=https://en.unesco.org/womeninafrica/njinga-mbandi/biography|access-date=31 May 2020|website=en.unesco.org}}</ref> As he land for power, e begin dey do blood work, dey kill plenty people wey wan take de throne, including him own half-brother plus demma family .<ref name=":12">Heywood (2017) p. 44, 45</ref><ref name=":4" /> Nzingha wey be thirty-five at dat time, dem no fit touch am, but de new king order make dem kill him small pikin and dem force sterilize am plus him two sisters, make sure say she no go fit born pikin again.<ref name=":12" /> Some people talk say dem dey treat Nzingha harsh because she and him brother get long feud.<ref name=":12" /> Maybe she dey fear for him life, Nzingha come run go Matamba kingdom.<ref name=":6" /> As Mbandi don gather him power, e swear say e go continue fight de Portuguese. But de guy no sabi how to war, plus even though e fit form alliance with de Imbangala, de Portuguese dey make serious military progress. So, in 1621, as e dey see say Portuguese dey pose threat, e reach out to Nzingha, ask make she be him representative for de Portuguese wey dey Luanda. She be de perfect person for de job, cause she get royal blood plus sabi Portuguese well-well. She gree lead de diplomatic mission, but she talk say make dem allow am negotiate in de king’s name plus give am chance to baptize – this one be serious diplomatic strategy wey she wan use against the Portuguese.<ref name=":13">Heywood (2017) p. 50</ref> Nzingha waka comot from Ndongan capital with plenty people for her back plus wen she reach Luanda, everybody dey craze for her style, make de Portuguese governor gree pay all her squad expenses.<ref name=":14">Heywood (2017) p. 51</ref> Normally, Ndongo leaders dey show face for European cloth, but she decide say, na im go rock plenty fine traditional cloth (with feathers and plenty jewels) wey show say demma culture no be small thing.<ref name=":17">Heywood (2017) p. 61, 62</ref> Gist go say, when Nzingha come meet the Portuguese, dem wan give Portuguese officials chair but just mat dey for am. This kin wahala from Portuguese no be new; na their way to show say Africans wey dem don conquer be lower. Nzingha no gree, her person just position himself make e be her chair while she dey yarn with de governor for face.<ref name=":17" /> She sabi use sweet talk as her diplomatic charm, and some people talk say she sabi do am to show say her own style no be like her brother wey dey always dey fight.<ref name=":17" /> As ambassador, Nzingha wan make sure say peace dey between her people plus de Portuguese. So she promise dem say hostilities go finish (she talk say wetin her brother do be just young king mistake), she allow Portuguese slave traders enter Ndongo,<ref name=":8" /> plus she promise say she go return Portuguese slaves wey escape join her brother army. For this one, she demand say Portugal go remove de forts wey dem build for Ndongan land plus she no gree say Ndongo go pay tribute to Portugal, she talk say na only people wey don lose dey pay tribute plus her people never lose. She talk say she wan make dem join body, make dem fit help each other fight their common enemies for de area.<ref name=":14" /> Wen de Portuguese come ask am if she serious for peace, Nzingha gree say she go do public baptism, plus she do am well well for Luanda.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":6" /><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74</ref> She take name Dona Anna de Sousa sake of her godparents, Ana da Silva (de governor wife wey be her godmother) plus Governor Joao Correia de Sousa.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" /> Later, dem agree peace treaty, plus Nzingha come dey shine back go Kabasa for late 1622.<ref name=":15">Heywood (2017), p. 52, 53</ref> Even though she do well for de talks wey she get with de Portuguese, de peace wey dey between Ndongo plus de Imbangala – wey dey try expand dem territory – crash.<ref name=":9">{{Cite web|last1=Kostiw|first1=Nicolette M.|year=2016|title=Nbandi, Ana Nzinga "Queen Ginga"|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74658|access-date=30 March 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74658|isbn=9780195301731}}</ref> After plenty defeats, dem push de Ndongan royal family comot from dem court for Kabasa, make de king go exile, plus some of de Imbangala fit start de Kingdom of Kasanje.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":15" /> De Portuguese governor wan move ahead with de treaty, but e no go help Ndongo against de Imbangala until de king don take back Kabasa and don get baptize.<ref name=":15" /><ref name=":6" /> King Mbandi take Kabasa back for 1623 and start small small step for Christianity, but e still no trust Portuguese at all. Nzingha wey dey get power for the palace,<ref name=":16">Heywood (2017) p. 54, 55, 61</ref> come warn her brother say if e go baptize, e go scatter him traditional supporters, so him gree no go baptize. Plus, Portuguese dey chop treaty wan mad, dem no wan comot from dem fort for Ndongo plus dey carry go raid Ndongo land for loot plus slaves. By 1624, King Mbandi don dey deep sad plus ein has to hand over plenty of im work to Nzingha.<ref name=":16" /> == Wartime == ===== Rise to power ===== [[File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Nzinga_1657.png|right|thumb|Modern drawing wey show Queen Nzinga dey negotiate with Portuguese governor, from 1657]] For 1624, her brother die wey no body sabi wetin cause am (some talk say na suicide, others talk say na poison).<ref name=":4" /> Before e die, he don make am clear say Nzinga go be him successor. Nzinga no waste time, she quickly gather her people, make dem seize all de traditional things wey dey for the kingdom and clear all de people wey dey oppose am for court.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 64, 65</ref> She also take title of Ngola, wey give her big influence among her people.<ref name=":7" /> Dem plan big funeral for her brother, and dem keep some of him body for misete (reliquary), make Nzinga fit check am later.<ref name=":7" /> But wahala wey dey block her from ruling be her 7-year-old pikin wey Kasa, the Imbangala war chief, dey take care of. So, Nzinga go meet Kasa, propose marry am; dem jam for marriage, and after dem wahala, she make sure say dem kill her pikin—na her way of getting back for her own pikin wey dem don kill.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 65</ref> But, e no easy for am to take throne, plenty guys from other noble families dey oppose am.<ref name=":7" /> For Mbande tradition, Nzinga and her brother no fit claim throne straight sekof dem be pikin of slave wives, no be first wife. Nzinga sabi play the game well, she talk say she dey from de main royal blood through her papa, unlike her rivals wey no get that blood connection. Her opponents, no be small, dey use plenty reasons to paint am bad, like say she be woman so she no fit rule.<ref name=":8" /> Plus, Nzinga agree talk with de Portuguese (unlike de past leaders wey dey fight dem) some Ndongan noble people see am as sign of weak. Dem no like say di treaty allow Portuguese missionaries come insyde Ndongo, dem vex for dat one well well.<ref name=":8" /> As de succession wahala dey grow, Ghana-Ndongo and Portugal relationship dey vex small small. Nzinga dey hope say she go fit follow the agreement wey she sign with Portugal for 1621, make she fit get back de Ndongan lands wey her bro lose during him bad wars. Governor de Sousa too no wan chop fight, and both of dem dey look for chance to reopen de slave market wey dey very important for the area money matters. But wahala start between Nzinga and de Sousa. When Nzinga ask make dem bring back kijikos (dem slaves wey Ndongan royalty dey own), wey dey for Portuguese side, as dem agree for de treaty, de Sousa vex come refuse and say make Nzinga first return Portuguese slaves wey run enter her army. De Sousa still talk say make Nzinga become vassal for Portugal king and pay tribute, but she no gree at all.<ref name=":41">Heywood (2017) p. 66, 67, 68</ref> To make matter worse, for late 1624, de Sousa start serious fight to make Mbande nobles, sobas, turn Portuguese vassals. Sobas dey usually serve Ndongo ruler, plus dem dey bring food, soldiers, plus slaves wey dey help manage Angola – so by turning sobas to Portugal vassals, de Portuguese don sabi how to shake Nzinga as queen of Ndongo.<ref name=":41" /> To make Portuguese dem no fit run their show again, Nzinga send messengers (makunzes) go tell Mbande slaves make dem run from Portuguese farms come join her kingdom, so e don deprive dem money manpower. When Portuguese dey shout say slaves don escape, Nzinga talk say she go follow her earlier agreement and return escaped slaves, but her kingdom no get any.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 66-68</ref> Wetin she do work well, many sobas join am, make her stronger and make Portuguese dey fear say Mbande go rise up anytime soon.<ref name=":41" /> Even though dem get small wins, Nzinga's moves dey threat Portuguese and Mbande nobles pocket. E no take long, Portuguese start dey plan rebellion for her kingdom. Late 1625, dem send soldiers go protect<ref name=":18">Heywood (2017) p. 70-74</ref> Hari a Kiluanje, one soba wey don cut connection with Nzinga. Kiluanje no wan woman rule Ndongo, plus e be from royal family; when Nzinga hear wetin e dey do, she send warriors to squash him revolt but dem beat am, make her strong position weak plus plenty nobles fit join revolt. Nzinga go meet Portuguese to beg make dem stop support Kiluanje, she try negotiate as she dey gather more forces, but Portuguese sabi say na delaying tactic and soon dem recognize Kiluanje as king of Ndongo.<ref name=":18" /> After that, Portuguese declare war on Nzinga for 15 March 1626.<ref name=":18" /> ===== War with de Portuguese ===== [[File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba_SEQ_01_Ecran_1.png|thumb|Modern way dem dey show Nzinga Mbandi, Queen wey dey rule Ndongo plus Matamba, as she dey ready shake body go confront Portuguese soldiers.]] As Portuguese dem show face, Nzinga gather her soldiers plus run go one island for Kwanza river. After plenty battles, dem beat am plus she must waka long go eastern Ndongo; for de run, she leave many of her people behind, but e dey work for am well sekof Portuguese wan find slaves pass to chase her soldiers. But dem self face wahala when Hari a Kiluanje die of smallpox, so dem have to change am make Ngola Hari, another Ndongan nobleman, be king.<ref name=":19">Heywood (2017) p. 82-88</ref> Ngola Hari no be popular leader for Ndongan people, dem see am like Portuguese puppet, but some sobas dey back am. Soon, dem get wahala insyde Ndongo kingdom, as common people plus small nobility dey support Nzinga, while plenty big men dey stand for Ngola Hari plus Portuguese side.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 92, 96</ref> For November 1627, Nzinga try again to talk with the Portuguese dem. She send peace people plus carry 400 slaves as gift. She talk say she dey ready to be vassal for Portugal kingdom plus fit pay tribute if dem go support her for throne matter, but she no gree say she no be de true heir for Ndongo throne. But de Portuguese no gree for de offer, dem chop her lead diplomat head and tell her make she comot from public life, drop her claim for Ndongo kingdom, plus follow Ngola Hari as di king—dem demands fit normal for European diplomacy, but Nzinga no go accept am at all.<ref name=":20">Heywood (2017) p. 93-98</ref> Wen Portuguese dey vex am plus she see say plenty Ndongan nobles no dey support am, Nzinga (like her papa den brother) lock herself for room, dey waka down small. But she come out, plus within one month, she don start new plan to gather her allies for Ndongo back.<ref name=":19" /><ref name=":20" /> As Nzinga dey build her strength, she use Ngola Hari weak side for political matter, show say he no get any experience. Dem nobles wey dey around Hari and him Portuguese friends no like am, cause all di kings wey don rule Ndongo be warriors, but dis usurper Hari no get any soldiers wey belong to am, so he dey rely on Portuguese soldiers. Hari plus de Portuguese try counter Nzinga with propaganda, dem wan use her gender to make her strength look weak,<ref name=":21">Heywood (2017) p. 98-104, 105–110</ref> but e backfire! Nzinga dey outsmart Hari for Ndongan politics well-well. One time, Nzinga send letters wey dey threaten Hari plus some fetishes, challenge am to fight with her forces; dis move scare Hari wey no get choice than to call him Portuguese friends for help, plus e come make him prestige drop while Nzinga reputation dey rise.<ref name=":21" /> But e be say she no fit face de Portuguese people for battle, so she gots to run come back as de Portuguese army dey come. She take plenty losses, especially for one ambush wey dem catch half of her soldiers, all her officers plus two of her sisters, but she manage escape. By late 1628, Nzinga's army don shrink well, wey e turn around 200 soldiers according to one source,<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 107</ref> plus dem don effectively push her come out from her own kingdom.<ref name=":21" /> ===== Conquest of Matamba ===== After dem kick Nzinga out, she and her paddy dem still dey fight the Portuguese. To boost her soldiers, the queen wan find allies for the area while dey hide her tired troops from the Portuguese army. During this time, Kasanje wey be big Imbangala warlord wey don create him own kingdom for Kwanza river contact her. Kasanje and him Imbangala guys be traditional enemies of Ndongo,<ref name=":7" /> plus this Kasanje don already kill some of Nzinga's messengers before. He come propose alliance plus military help to Nzinga, but he talk say she go marry am plus throway her lunga (the big bell wey Ndongan war captains dey use show say dem get power).<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 111</ref> Nzinga gree these terms, marry Kasanje plus join Imbangala society. Di exiled queen quick quick adapt to di new culture, take many Imbangala religious rites. Sources (African, Western, modern, contemporary)<ref name=":22">Heywood (2017) p. 119-126</ref><ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":2" /> dey no gree on di details and how far Imbangala rites and laws (ijila) go, but everybody gree say Nzinga no get choice but to join di customary cannibalistic rites (dem dey drink human blood for di cuia, or blood oath ceremony)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 119</ref> plus infanticidal ones (dem dey use oil wey dem make from baby wey dem don kill, de maji a samba)<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 124</ref> to fit become leader for di military heavy Imbangala society.<ref name=":22" /> Dis ritual na part of how dem go fit stop problem for succession for Imbangala insyde de future.<ref name=":37">{{Cite web|title=Book 1, Chapter 3 {{!}} African American Studies|url=https://www.bu.edu/afam/people/faculty/john-thornton/cavazzi-missione-evangelica-2/book-1-chapter-3/|access-date=8 November 2021|website=www.bu.edu}}</ref> She no just forget her Mbundan roots oh, she join am with im new Imbangalan padi dem beliefs. As historian Linda Heywood talk, Nzinga smart as she take her Mbundu heritage mix with Imbangalan Central African army style and leadership, create new strong army wey sabi. To increase her numbers, she free escaped slaves, give land, new slaves, and even titles to other Ndongans wey dey exile.<ref name=":42">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":8" /> Some people talk say Nzinga – wey Mbundu noble no gree make she shine – find herself for Imbangalans side, dem wey dey value merit and religious fire pass bloodline and family matter.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":22" /> With her new power, Nzinga change her army like di sharp Imbangala warriors. By 1631, she don build her army well-well plus dey fight correct guerilla war against de Portuguese. One Jesuit priest wey dey Kongo at dat time talk say she be like Amazon queen plus e praise her leadership.<ref name=":22" /> From 1631 to 1635, Nzinga invade de neighboring Kingdom of Matamba, capture plus push Queen Mwongo Matamba come out for 1631. Nzinga brand de defeated queen but she no kill am (Imbangala way say she suppose execute her) and she carry Mwongo pikin come join her as one of her warriors.<ref name=":23">Heywood (2017) p. 126</ref> As she don beat the Matambans, Nzinga sit down for Matamba throne come dey settle place wit exiled Ndongans, her plan be to use di kingdom as base to carry war go take back her land.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":23" /> Unlike her own Ndongo, Matamba get culture wey support female leaders, so Nzinga fit build stable power after she don remove di former queen.<ref name=":8" /> With Matamba for her hand, Nzinga hustle plenty to make de slave trade grow for her new kingdom, she dey use di money wey she dey make for slave trade to fund her wars plus block Portuguese from di trade money. For de next ten years, Nzinga dey fight against de Portuguese plus demma pals, both side dey try limit each other power plus control de slave trade.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":39">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Dis decade, Nzinga dey show more masculine vibes, she dey wear men cloth plus carry male titles. She even set up all-girls bodyguard for herself, plus she tell her male lovers make dem wear women cloth plus call am king. She also create communal sleeping area for her court, plus she dey enforce strong chastity rules for her male advisors plus female bodyguards.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 127</ref> ===== Expansion plus Dutch alliance ===== By late 1630s, Nzinga don spread her power north plus south of Matamba. She call her warriors, block other leaders from Portuguese side, capture some land dem for Kwango River, take control of de important slave land. She too carry her territory go north, make connection with Kongo kingdom and Dutch traders wey dey hustle for de area. Nzinga also start fine slave trade with de Dutch, dem dey buy up to 13,000 slaves every year from her kingdom.<ref name=":8" /><ref>Pieter Mortamer, report published in S. P. l'Honore Naber, ''<nowiki/>'Nota van Pieter Mortamer over het gewest Angola, i643''<nowiki/>', Bijdragen en Medeelingen van het Historisch Genootschap gevestigd te Utrecht, LIV, (1933), pp 1–42.</ref> She dey still send peace message go Portuguese sometimes, even talk say make dem join her for military wahala, but only if dem go help am come back to Ndongo. She no gree make dem take am back to Christian belief, wey be wahala between dem two sides.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 128-133</ref> For 1641, Dutch West India Company plus Kingdom of Kongo join hand, take Luanda from Portuguese plus set up dem own rule for Loango-Angola. Luanda fall hit Portuguese hard, Nzinga no waste time, she send envoy go Dutch city wey dem control. She dey hope make dem join am to fight against Portuguese, she even agree make dem trade slaves with am, but she dey worry say Kingdom of Kongo wey be her people dem rival for north dey grow strong. Dutch accept her alliance, send demma own ambassador and soldiers (some even carry their wives) come her court, dem help her fight Portuguese. Portuguese lose plenty land, dey run go Massangano, their governor try make peace with Nzinga, but she no wan hear am.<ref name=":24">Heywood (2017) p. 133-136</ref> Nzingha carry her capital go Kavanga, for di northern side of Ndongo old territory. When dem capture Luanda, e make Nzingha kingdom be di main slave-trading power for di area, even if na small time. Dis one fit make am build big war-camp (kilombo) of 80,000 people<ref name=":24" /> (dem include non-combatants)<ref name=":40">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> - mercenaries, escaped slaves, allies, plus ein own soldiers too.<ref name=":8" /> Nzinga use her big army, new money and her famous name to take back plenty land for Ndongo from 1641 to 1644.<ref name=":24" /> But her wahala wan dey make other African kingdoms dey fear; one time, she enter Wandu area for Kongo, wey dey fight Kongo king. Even though that land no be part of Ndongo before, Nzinga no wan come out, she just add am to her kingdom, wey make Kongo king, Garcia II, vex well.<ref name=":25">Heywood (2017) p. 138, 139, 142</ref><ref name=":39" /> De Dutch, wey wan keep demma friendship with Kongo plus Nzinga, try settle peace, but de wahala between Nzinga and other leaders still dey.<ref name=":25" /> E be say, her ex-husband wey be her paddy, Kasanje, dey fear say her power dey grow for di area, so him gather some Imbangala leaders come fight Nzinga, invade her land for Matamba (but dem no really fit make progress).<ref name=":25" /> By mid-1640s, as her success dey rise, plenty Ndongan nobles come support am. As di nobles dey gather for her side, Nzinga fit collect plenty tribute (slaves wey she dey sell to de Dutch for guns), dis one help am boost her military plus money matter; by 1644, she dey see Garcia II of Kongo as her only political mate for de area, while de Portuguese dey see her as dia strongest enemy for Africa.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 143, 144</ref> For 1644, Nzinga beat the Portuguese army for the Battle of Ngoleme. Den for 1646, dem waka come beat am back for the Battle of Kavanga, and dem catch her sister Kambu again, plus her files wey show say she dey work with Kongo.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 148</ref> Dem files sef show say her sister Funji wey dem catch, dey write Nzinga secret letter wey reveal Portuguese plans. Because of the woman wey dey spy, dem say Portuguese drown de sister for Kwanza River.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De Dutch for Luanda come send Nzinga back up, plus with demma help, Nzinga scatter Portuguese army for 1647 for de Battle of Kombi.<ref name=":0" /> Nzinga come dey block Portuguese capital for Massangano, make dem dey chop alone; by 1648, Nzingha don get plenty of her former kingdom, plus her hand for slave trade dey boost Matamba money matter well well.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Even though dem do well small, the allies still no fit hold Angola tight. Dem no get artillery, so Nzinga no fit break Portuguese defense for Massangano well, and as politics dey wahala for Europe, e dey make Dutch forces weak for Angola.<ref name=":393">{{Cite book|last=Tojo|first=Natalia|title=The Dutch West India Company's establishment in Angola, 1641–1648: a reluctant commitment|publisher=Faculty of Humanities, [[Utrecht University]]|year=2007|type=Master thesis|hdl=1874/25632|hdl-access=free}}</ref> For August 1648, Portuguese wey govern now, Salvador Correia de Sá,<ref name=":382">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> gather small troops go . [[:en:Recapture_of_Luanda|besieged Luanda]]. After dem suffer from serious Portuguese bomb, on 24 August 1648, de Dutch commander come tota say make dem find peace with de Portuguese plus agree to waka comot from Angola.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Boxer |first=C. R. |date=1948 |title=Salvador Correia de sá e Benevides and the Reconquest of Angola in 1648 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2507790 |journal=The Hispanic American Historical Review |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=483–513 |doi=10.2307/2507790 |issn=0018-2168 |jstor=2507790 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> When Nzinga army plus de Dutch guys wey still dey remain land for Luanda, dem sign peace wey go fit Dutch and Portuguese, and Nzinga no sabi, di Dutch guys don waka go Europe.<ref name=":382" /> Wen dem face better Portuguese guys wey dey garrison, Nzinga and her team turn back go Matamba.<ref name=":8" /> But e no be like before o, after 1648, Nzinga focus her mind to stop Portuguese from pushing inside (instead of trying to take back Ndongan land), she dey disturb their soldiers plus dey cause wahala between small tribes den kingdoms.<ref name=":26">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref><ref name=":8" /> == Years wey go come later == ===== Last time wey dem campaign ===== As e dey fight Portuguese plus dem paddy dem, Nzingha dey make new friends with kings wey dey near am, her power dey grow even as time dey pass.<ref name=":43">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref> She dey send soldiers make dem control local big men, she carry troops go battle Kasanje Imbangalans for eastern Matamba, and she dey fight Kaka Kingdom for Congo.<ref name=":262">Heywood (2017) p. 160-165</ref> She dey use her army too as power move, make dem help her win for succession wahala.<ref name=":262" /> ===== On Christianity ===== For de 1640s and 1650s, Nzinga start to dey try follow Christian culture, after she convert for 1623. E began for 1644 wen her soldiers catch one Portuguese priest, plus e grow wen her men for Kongo catch two Spanish Capuchins for 1648; unlike other European prisoners, de queen give de missionaries plenty freedom for her war camp. One of de Spaniards, Father Calisto Zelotes do Reis Mago, go stay her court long time plus be her personal secretary.<ref name=":27">Heywood (2017) p. 166, 167, 168</ref><ref>Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp. 74–75</ref> While de previous missionaries (like parish priests or Jesuits) dey close to de Portuguese plus demma colonial rule, de Spanish Capuchins understand Nzinga style better. For early 1650s, Nzinga dey send request to de Capuchin order for more missionaries plus support against de Portuguese – as she dey turn de missionaries into diplomats between her den de Vatican.<ref name=":27" /> E follow make relationship strong with Catholic leaders for Europe till e die, even get letter from Pope Alexander VII for 1661 wey dey praise her work.<ref name=":30">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Aside using Christianity for diplomatic matter, Nzinga dey use Christian customs for her court. From 1650s come, she dey rely more on Christian converts wey dey her court. Just like how she take waka with Imbangalan culture some years back, Nzinga collect some Christian ideologies plus culture join her own court traditions to form new set of Christian advisors wey go be loyal to her.<ref name=":28">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref><ref name=":82">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> She self start to dey do Catholic rituals, put crosses for important places for her court, plus she build plenty churches all over her kingdom.<ref name=":31">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref> Nzinga try convert her people no dey come easy o, plenty wahala dey. Some conservative religious guys no gree her policies at all. So, Nzinga come give her Christian priests power make dem burn all de temples den shrines wey dey for those wey oppose am, she self order say make dem carry dem go arrest am for trial. Traditionalists wey no gree her, she just show dem pepper for court, sentence dem make dem collect public whips. Plenty big Mdundu plus Imbangala priests dey sell am as slaves to Portuguese, Nzinga even ask say make dem shift am go overseas; money wey dem make from de sale she use build new church.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 217-221</ref> But some of de priests wey she dey find, escape from her purging plus find corner hide, later dey work to spoil her name as queen.<ref name=":32">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> ==== Peace with Portugal ==== By 1650, Matamba plus Portugal don dey fight for near 25 years, both sides don tire finish.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Conflict in Africa: Concepts and Realities|date=8 March 2015|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-6742-4|pages=331–368|language=en|chapter=20. The European Presence, Treaty Making, And The African Response|doi=10.1515/9781400867424-022|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400867424-022/html}}</ref> Small peace talk wey Nzingha plus de Portuguese start for 1651, e carry go 1654, come finally finish for 1656.<ref name=":29">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> De talks worked well because Nzingha don convert to Christianity plus Portugal dey struggle with demma own wahala for Independence from Spain.<ref name=":38">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> De Portuguese wan finish dis costly war for Angola plus reopen de slave trade, but Nzingha, wey dey sabi say she don dey old,<ref name=":282">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> wan free her sister Kambu (people dey call am Barbara for dis time).<ref name=":292">Heywood (2017) p. 173, 174</ref> But she no go fit pay de ransom wey de Portuguese demand for her sister, so de negotiation dey delay plenty.<ref name=":283">Heywood (2017) p. 180, 181, 184</ref> Even though tings no easy, Nzingha plus de Portuguese sign peace treaty for late 1656. Dem agree say Nzingha go hand over some land for her kingdom west side to Portugal, wey de Lucala River go be de new border between Portuguese Angola plus Matamba. As exchange, Portugal go give am de Kituxela area. Nzingha also agree say make Portuguese traders fit come Matamba, and dem go help her if Kasanje or Nogla Hari want start wahala. De Portuguese say dem go do di slave trade for market for her capital (so she go get di trade all to herself) and go send one person to stay for her court. Nzingha too agree say she go help dem with military support plus allow missionaries stay for her kingdom. Dem even talk say Matamba go pay tribute to Portugal, but e no ever happen. While some people<ref name=":44">Williams, Hettie V. (2010). "Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)". In Alexander, Leslie M.; Rucker, Walter C. (eds.). Encyclopedia of African American History. '''1'''. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|9781851097746}}.</ref><ref name=":83">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref><ref>Piętek, R. and Rubinkowska-Anioł, H., Constructing Angola's history through pictures–the case of queen Nzinga. ''THE ARTISTIC'', p.53.</ref> talk say de treaty give plenty good tings to Portugal, others talk say de way Portugal recognize Nzingha as ruler still give am power plus make de place steady.<ref name=":312">Heywood (2017) p. 185-192, 222, 223</ref><ref name=":84">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> For 12 October, Nzingha sister land for Nzingha court wey dey Matamba, led by Father Ignazio de Valassina. As Kambu reach Matamba, dem agree peace terms officially, plus as de tradition be, Nzingha plus her people dey clap demma hands make de Portuguese sabi say dem don accept peace.<ref name=":383">{{Cite book|last=Heywood|first=Linda|title=Nzinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=2017}}</ref> ===== Final years ===== After dem war wey Portugal finish, Nzingha dey try fix her kingdom back. Like Linda Heywood talk, Nzingha spend her last years to make one strong kingdom wey she go fit pass give her sister. But her own Ndongo don suffer plenty from war, land don plenty empty; so Nzingha put her mind to make Matamba strong.<ref name=":302">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> She turn Matamba to big trading center because e dey right place for Central Africa, plus she dey make sure say her hand strong for slave trade.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> She move former slaves go new land and let women for her war camp fit born pikin, wey dem don ban under the Imbangala customs for war time.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20192">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> Ein still change de law for her kingdom plus start to de connect with Christian leaders for Europe, dey hope say Matamba go get recognition as big Christian kingdom for de world.<ref name=":303">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Peace come change plenty things for Nzingha royal court. Wen dem dey fight, she wear like man, act like Imbangala warlord, but after war, her court change to more fine-fine, she dey rock new styles, bring silk plus goods from Europe, focus on education pass military drills, plus chop concubinage, she even marry her best concubine for church wey be Christian style.<ref name=":304">Heywood (2017) p. 193-210</ref> Nzingha, no wan wahala for succession, she dey try make royal family strong for Ndongo. She de pull Einself from Imbangalan culture plus drop plenty of de democratic plus merit policies wey she fit bear for war time, sekof she see say dem be wahala for de monarchy.<ref name=":322">Heywood (2017) p. 225, 226</ref> For ein later reign, plenty divide show for her court between educated Christian wey dey support her royalist policies plus traditional Imbangalans den Mbundus, wey dey want make dem go back to de past wey dey more militaristic plus meritocratic.<ref name=":332">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref><ref name=":1">Thornton (1991) pp. 1–33</ref> ===== Death den succession ===== For the 1660s (after Nzinga dey sick hard for 1657), she dey worry wetin go happen if she no dey again as ruler for Ndongo den Matamba. She no wan make ein death cause wahala for who go take power after her, and make her Christian converts scatter plus make Portuguese come dey attack again. To make sure say everything go smooth, she name her sister Kambu as her heir, no go follow de usual Mbundu election matter. But she dey vex say her sister husband, Nzinga a Mona, dey gather too much power. Nzinga a Mona be strong soldier wey dey come from Imbangala way, plus even though he don dey fight for Nzingha army for long, as he dey old, matter dey change between dem. She dey fear say e tradition fit shake de new Christian kingdom wey she don build.<ref name=":333">Heywood (2017) p. 224, 225, 232, 234</ref> For October wey pass, 1663, Nzinga catch sickness wey dey affect her throat, and she sabi no fit waka again. By December that same year, the sickness don reach her lungs, and Nzinga sleep go pass away for the morning of 17 December.<ref>Heywood (2017) p. 235</ref> Dem bury am with plenty respect according to Catholic plus Mbundu ways. Dem do plenty ceremonies for Matamba plus Luanda, where both Portuguese den Mbundu people come gather do service for ein honor.<ref name=":34">Heywood (2017) p. 236-244</ref> After Nzinga waka go, her sister Kambu (wey dem dey call Barbara or Dona Barbara) take over de throne.<ref name=":34" /> == History wey dem dey show == One strong queen wey dey rule over thirty years, Nzinga don be topic for plenty works.<ref name=":35">Heywood (2017) p. 245-257</ref> ===== Angolan ===== For her hometown Angola, dem start to celebrate Nzinga right after em die. Even though her kingdoms join Portuguese Angola later, people still dey remember Nzinga plus all de big things she do. For mid-20th century, Nzinga turn sharp symbol for Angolan fight against Portugal for de time of de Angolan War of Independence.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzinga legacy no go fade even after Angolan Civil War, and e still dey catch people mind for de country.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Portuguese ===== De Portuguese wey dey beef Nzinga for long time, write plenty tins about her life. De first biography wey dem publish about Nzinga na from Antonio da Gaeta (one Capuchin priest wey don live for her court) for 1669; Gaeta's work dey hail Nzinga diplomatic sense plus dey compare her to some bold women from ancient times, but e come talk say she finally gree accept Christianity through divine intervention. Another Capuchin, Antonio Cavazzi, wey also dey Nzinga court, write her biography in 1689, again talk say she sabi de political game, but also describe her as queen wey spoil de land. Together, Gaeta plus Cavazzi's biographies na de main source wey we get about Nzinga's life. Portuguese writers still dey write about Nzinga reach 20th century, dey mostly show her as one sharp, 'savage' opponent wey eventually gree submit to Portugal den accept Christianity.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Western ===== Plenty Western authors don write about Nzinga. De first big, non-Portuguese work wey talk about Nzinga na from French Jesuit Jean-Baptiste Labat for 1732. Labat do heavy editing with Cavazzi biography, plus him work be wetin plenty Western sources take show dem image of Nzinga. While Portuguese sources focus on how Nzinga dey lead plus how she convert to Christianity, Western sources for 18th and 19th centuries dey focus plenty on her sexuality, talks say she dey chop human flesh, and all de brutality. Jean-Louis Castilhon write fictional story about her life for 1769, make am look cruel (but no be cannibal), while Marquis de Sade talk about her supposed wickedness plus promiscuity for him 1795 book Philosophy for de Bedroom, wey he use her as example of woman wey passion dey push go evil. Similarly, Laure Junot put Nzinga as symbol of cruelty den lust for her Memoirs of Celebrated Women of All Countries, she join am with women like Lady Jane Grey, Marie Antoinette, plus Catherine I.<ref name=":35" /> Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel too no dey mince word for Nzinga matter (even though e no mention her directly), him talk say her 'female state' be like barren land wey no fit produce anything, e collapse sekof she go dey do am own way wey dey disturb de natural order.<ref name=":35" /> Nzinga get plenty hype for the West during 20th century. People dey use am as symbol for Angola Independence war plus e make dem wan know more about her life.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Joseph C. Miller drop one essay for 1975 De Journal of African History wey everybody sabi, e talk about her wahala and she sabi but e still knack her for her dictator ways.<ref name=":85">Miller, Joseph C. "Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective." ''The Journal of African History'' 16, no. 2 (1975) pp. 201–206, 208, 209, 210–216. Accessed 30 March 2021. {{JSTOR|180812}}</ref> Afro-Cuban poet Georgina Herrera write one sweet poem for 1978 wey dey praise Nzinga wisdom plus join her culture with Afro-Caribbeans for America.<ref name=":35" /> American feminist writer Aurora Levins Morales talk about Nzinga too, e dey hail her courage against colonialism plus patriarchy but e still dey criticize her as ruling class plus how she dey push slave trade.<ref name=":36">{{Cite book|last=Levins Morales|first=Aurora|title=Medicine Stories: Essays for Radicals|publisher=Duke University Press|year=2019|isbn=9781478003090|edition=Revised & Expanded|pages=79}}</ref> For him writings about Nzinga, American historian John Thornton focus on how she dey struggle all her life to show her authority for Mbundu culture. E talk say her legendary fame and actions help create broader Atlantic Creole culture.<ref name=":35" /> American historian Linda Heywood write big biography about Nzinga for 2017, wey show plenty about ein life plus describe her as serious historical figure.<ref name=":35" /> Heywood warn make we no dey see Nzinga as just populist hero or tyrant,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/webcast-8255/|access-date=14 April 2021|website=Library of Congress}}</ref> but make we fit see her as person wey complicate wey use culture, diplomacy, religion, plus war to secure den protect em kingdom.<ref name=":35" /> ===== Legendary accounts ===== One legend talk say Nzinga dey kill her lovers. She dey keep like 50-60 men wey she de dress dem like woman, as her harem,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Belys|first=Rudi C.|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination|publisher=[[New York University Press]]|year=1995|pages=33}}</ref> Dem go dey fight to die so dem fit spend night with her. for de morning, de winner go still chop death.<ref name=":210">{{Cite book|last=Jackson|first=Guida M.|title=Women Who Ruled: A Biographical Encyclopedia|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=1990|isbn=0874365600|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=130}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=bachmann|date=18 November 2013|title=The Enigmatic Queen Nzinga of Ndongo|url=https://blogs.harvard.edu/preserving/2013/11/18/the-enigmatic-queen-nzinga-of-ndongo/|access-date=1 November 2020|website=The Shelf|language=en-US}}</ref> As Capuchin priest Cavazzi talk am, Nzinga dey maintain her strength even wen she old. Wen he see her for military review for 1662 (de year before she die), Cavazzi praise her agility, plus de old queen yarn say, for her young days, she fit injure any Imbangala warrior, plus she go fit stand against 25 armed men - unless dem get musket.<ref name=":402">Thornton, John K. "The Art of War in Angola, 1575–1680." ''Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 30, no. 2 (1988): 360–78. {{JSTOR|178839}}.</ref> == Legacy == [[File:Nzingambande.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nzingambande.jpg|right|thumb|Statue for [[:en:Luanda|Luanda]], [[:en:Angola|Angola]]]] Today, dem dey remember am for Angola as Mama of Angola, de negotiator wey sabi fight, plus de protector for her people. Even for de whole Africa, dem still dey respect am as fine leader plus woman, for her political sense den diplomacy, plus her sharp military tactics.<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20193">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> dem dey tell plenty story about her life wey sweet pass, plus she be symbol for de fight against oppression.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book|last=Bleys|first=Rudi C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9-Q8DAAAQBAJ&q=chibados&pg=PA33|title=The Geography of Perversion: Male-to-Male Sexual Behavior Outside the West and the Ethnographic Imagination, 1750–1918|publisher=New York University Press|year=1995|isbn=9780814712658}}</ref> Nzingha fit make di state accept her power, e no easy o! But e dey survive plenty attacks plus gather strong supporters wey really help am shine. Though for her time, Njinga still sabi say dem no go gree say woman fit rule Ndongo, she has to 'turn male' to hold power. But her female successors no get wahala to fit rule, dem accept dem whole heartedly .<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> De smart way she use her gender plus her political sense help set solid ground for de future leaders of Ndongo wey dey today. For de 104 years after Njinga die for 1663, queens dey rule for at least eighty of dem. Nzingha be model for leadership wey all de generations of Angolan women dey look up to. Women for Angola today show plenty social independence and dem dey inside de country army, police, government, plus public plus private business sectors.<ref name=":53">{{Cite web|last=Masioni|first=Pat|display-authors=etal|date=2014|title=Njinga Mbandi: Queen of Ndongo and Matamba|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015215226/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000230103|archive-date=15 October 2019|website=UNESCO Digital Library}}</ref> Nzingha become symbol of de People’s Movement for de Liberation of Angola for de time of de civil war.<ref name=":310">{{Cite journal |last=Burness |first=Donald |date=1977 |title=Nzinga Mbandi' and Angolan Independence. |journal=Luso-Brazilian Review |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=225–229 |jstor=3513061}}</ref> One big road for Luanda dem name after am, plus dem place statue for Kinaxixi for one fine square for 2002,<ref name="nyt-elliott-hughes-20194">{{cite web|last1=Elliott|first1=Mary|last2=Hughes|first2=Jazmine|date=19 August 2019|title=A Brief History of Slavery That You Didn't Learn in School|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820004406/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html|archive-date=20 August 2019|access-date=20 August 2019|work=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> wey President Santos dedicate to mark 27 years of independence.{{Cn|date=January 2025}} People dey hail am, historian Scholastique Dianzinga talk say e dey help make women dey represent well for public monuments.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Badawi|first=Zeinab|url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/An_African_History_of_Africa/7PzLEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Scholastique+Dianzinga&pg=PT237&printsec=frontcover|title=An African History of Africa: Instant Sunday Times bestseller and shortlisted for the Nero Book Awards|date=2024-04-18|publisher=Ebury Publishing|isbn=978-0-7535-6015-0|language=en}}</ref> Angolan women dey like marry near de statue, especially for Thursdays den Fridays.{{Cn|date=January 2025}} On 23 December 2014, National Reserve Bank of Angola (BNA) drop one 20 Kwanza coin to show respect for Nzingha for how she stand fit defend her people identity plus self-determination.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-395099604.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911012552/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-395099604.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 September 2016|title=Angola to Launch New Kwanza Coins in 2015|date=26 December 2014|work=Mena Report|url-access=subscription|access-date=26 June 2016|via=HighBeam Research}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|access-date=13 April 2021|url=http://www.bna.ao:80/Conteudos/Artigos/detalhe_artigo.aspx?idc=139&idsc=266&idl=1&idi=14206|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230103617/http://www.bna.ao/Conteudos/Artigos/detalhe_artigo.aspx?idc=139&idsc=266&idl=1&idi=14206|url-status=live|archive-date=30 December 2014|title=Lançamento da moeda de 20 Kwanzas (Launch of 20 Kwanza coin)|date=22 December 2014}}</ref> One Angolan film wey dem call [[:en:Njinga:_Queen_Of_Angola|Njinga: Queen Of Angola]] (for Portuguese dem dey call am Njinga, Rainha de Angola) drop for 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|date=6 November 2014|title=Njinga, Queen of Angola (Njinga, Rainha de Angola) UK Premiere|url=http://www.filmafrica.org.uk/njingha-queen-of-angola-njinga-rainha-de-angola-uk-premiere/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812130257/http://www.filmafrica.org.uk/njingha-queen-of-angola-njinga-rainha-de-angola-uk-premiere/|archive-date=12 August 2016|access-date=23 June 2016|website=Royal African Society's Annual Film Festival}}</ref> Dem dey work on Queen Nzinga wey be Starz series, Yetide Badaki go play de main role. 50 Cent, Steven S. DeKnight plus Mo Abundu na dem be producers.<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 December 2021|title=Yetide Badaki To Star In African Warrior Queen Nzinga Drama Series In The Works At Starz From 50 Cent, Mo Abudu & Steven S. DeKnight|url=https://deadline.com/2021/12/queen-nzinga-yetide-badaki-starz-50-cent-1234892198/|access-date=16 December 2021|website=[[Deadline Hollywood|Deadline]]}}</ref> Nzinga (we sabi am as Nzinga Mbande) dey lead Kongolese civilization for 2016 4X video game Civilization VI, since dem bring out Great Negotiators for 21 November 2022, as part of de DLC 'Leader Pass'. 2023 Netflix docudrama African Queens: Njinga dey show her life, e dey act am like wetin happen for history.<ref>{{cite web|title=Watch African Queens: Njinga &#124; Netflix Official Site|url=https://www.netflix.com/title/81650731|website=[[Netflix]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=African Queens: Njinga (TV Series 2023– ) – IMDb|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt15305648/|website=[[IMDb]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=15 February 2023|title=The Story Behind the Netflix Series African Queens: Njinga|url=https://time.com/6256012/african-queens-njinga-true-story/}}</ref> == Check am too == * [[:en:List_of_Rulers_of_Matamba|List of Rulers of Matamba]] * [[:en:List_of_Ngolas_of_Ndongo|List of Ngolas of Ndongo]] * [[:en:List_of_women_who_led_a_revolt_or_rebellion|List of women who led a revolt or rebellion]] * [[:en:Nzinga_a_Nkuwu|Nzinga a Nkuwu]] * [[:en:Pungo_Andongo|Pungo Andongo]] * [[:en:Dahomey_Amazons|Dahomey Amazons]] (all-female military regiment who fought the French) == References == <references /> ===Sources=== * Brásio, António. ''Monumenta Missionaria Africana'' (1st series, 15 volumes, Lisbon: Agencia Geral do Ultramar, 1952–88) * Baur, John. "2000 Years of Christianity in Africa – An African Church History" (Nairobi, 2009), {{ISBN|9966-21-110-1}}, pp.&nbsp;74–75 * Burness, Donald. "'Nzinga Mbandi’ and Angolan Independence." Luso-Brazilian Review, vol. 14, no. 2, 1977, pp. 225–229. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3513061. * Cadornega, António de Oliveira de. ''História geral das guerras angolanas (1680–81)''. mod. ed. José Matias Delgado and Manuel Alves da Cunha. 3 vols. (Lisbon, 1940–42) (reprinted 1972). * Cavazzi, Giovanni Antonio da Montecuccolo. ''Istorica descrizione de tre regni Congo, Matamba ed Angola''. (Bologna, 1687). French translation, Jean Baptiste Labat, ''Relation historique de l'Éthiopie''. 5 vols. (Paris, 1732) [a free translation with additional materials added]. Modern Portuguese translation, Graziano Maria Saccardo da Leguzzano, ed. Francisco Leite de Faria, ''Descrição histórica dos tres reinos Congo, Matamba e Angola''. 2 vols. (Lisbon, 1965). * Gaeta da Napoli, Antonio. ''La Meravigliosa Conversione alla santa Fede di Christo delle Regina Singa...''(Naples, 1668). * Heintze, Beatrix. ''Fontes para a história de Angola no século XVII.'' (2 vols, Wiesbaden, 1985–88) Contains the correspondence of Fernão de Souza. * Heywood, Linda. "Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen." (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 2017). * Miller, Joseph C. “Nzinga of Matamba in a New Perspective.” The Journal of African History, vol. 16, no. 2, 1975, pp.&nbsp;201–216. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/180812. * {{Cite book|last=Njoku|first=Onwuka N.|url=https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok|title=Mbundu|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.|year=1997|isbn=0823920046|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/mbundu00njok/page/n44 4]|url-access=registration}} * {{Cite book|last=Page|first=Willie F.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEEOAQAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopedia of African History and Culture: From Conquest to Colonization (1500-1850)|publisher=Facts on File|year=2001|isbn=0816044724|volume=3|location=New York}} * {{Cite book|last1=Serbin|first1=Sylvia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A05oCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=African Women, Pan-Africanism and African Renaissance|last2=Rasoanaivo-Randriamamonjy|first2=Ravaomalala|publisher=UNESCO|year=2015|isbn=9789231001307|location=Paris}} * Snethen, J. (16 June 2009) Queen Nzinga (1583-1663). Retrieved from <nowiki>https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/queen-nzinga-1583-1663/</nowiki> * {{Cite journal |last=Thornton |first=John K. |date=1991 |title=Legitimacy and Political Power: Queen Njinga, 1624–1663 |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=25–40 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700025329 |jstor=182577 |s2cid=145579317}} * {{Cite book|last=Thornton|first=John K.|title=Empires and Indigenes: Intercultural Alliance, Imperial Expansion and Warfare in the Early Modern World|publisher=New York University Press|year=2011|isbn=9780814753095|editor-last=Lee|editor-first=Wayne E.|location=New York|chapter=Firearms, Diplomacy, and Conquest in Angola: Cooperation and Alliance in West Central Africa, 1491-1671|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m50UCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA183}} * {{Cite journal |last=Vansina |first=Jan |date=1963 |title=The Foundation of the Kingdom of Kasanje |journal=The Journal of African History |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=355–374 |doi=10.1017/s0021853700004291 |jstor=180028 |s2cid=162901922}} * {{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Hettie V.|title=Encyclopedia of African American History|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2010|isbn=9781851097746|editor-last=Alexander|editor-first=Leslie M.|volume=1|location=Santa Barbara, California|chapter=Queen Nzinga (Njinga Mbande)|editor2-last=Rucker|editor2-first=Walter C.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uivtCqOlpTsC&pg=PA84}} ==Read further == *Patricia McKissack, ''Nzingha: Warrior Queen of Matamba, Angola, Africa, 1595''; The Royal Diaries Collection (2000) *David Birmingham, ''Trade and Conquest in Angola'' (Oxford, 1966). *Heywood, Linda and John K. Thornton, ''Central Africans, Atlantic Creoles, and the Making of the Americas, 1580–1660'' (Cambridge, 2007). This contains the most detailed account of her reign and times, based on a careful examination of all the relevant documentation. *Heywood, Linda M. ''Njinga of Angola: Africa's Warrior Queen''. Harvard University Press, 2017. *Saccardo, Grazziano, ''Congo e Angola con la storia dell'antica missione dei cappuccini''. 3 Volumes, (Venice, 1982–83) *Williams, Chancellor, ''Destruction of Black Civilization'' (WCP) * Nzinga, the Warrior Queen (a play written by Elizabeth Orchardson Mazrui and published by The Jomo Kenyatta Foundation, Nairobi, [[Kenya]], 2006). ** The play is based on Nzinga and discusses issues of colonisation, traditional African rulership, women leadership versus male leadership, political succession, struggles between various Portuguese socio-political, and economic interest groups, struggles between the vested interests of the Jesuits and the Capuchins, etc. * Kenny Mann, ''West Central Africa: Kongo, Ndongo'' (''African Kingdoms of the Past''). Parsippany, NJ: Dillon Press, 1996. == External links == {{Commons}} *[https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Nzinga_Mbandi_Queen_of_Ndongo_and_Matamba.pdf&page=17 Bio-Comic strip at Wikimedia Commons], Pat Masioni et al. * Article on Nzinga from Instituto Palmeiras [http://institutopalmeiras.pbworks.com/w/page/20000806/Cantar%20e%20Capoeira%2C%20Camara] *[http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/pwmn_2/hd_pwmn_2.htm Ana Nzinga: Queen of Ndongo] at the Metropolitan Museum of Art *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150607063732/http://www.womenwholead.org/nzinga.htm Women Who Lead] *[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/23/opinion/23gates.html Maybe Nzinga is not so innocent] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Nzinga Of Ndongo and Matamba}} [[Category:1580s births]] [[Category:1663 deaths]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Angolan people]] [[Category:Angolan Roman Catholics]] [[Category:African resistance to colonialism]] [[Category:African women insyd war]] [[Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from pagan religions]] [[Category:Women insyd 17th-century warfare]] [[Category:Queens regnant insyd Africa]] [[Category:17th-century women rulers]] [[Category:Matamban den Ndongo monarchs]] [[Category:Daughters of kings]] [[Category:Women warriors]] tiq9pxpgclahqkb22jtttccokbbvs72 0 17505 67168 64088 2025-06-29T19:01:16Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67168 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ronald Ozzy Lamola''' (born 21 November 1983) E be South African lawyer na politician wey dey serve as Minister of International Relations na Cooperation as Member of di National Assembly of South Africa since 22 May 2019 as member of di African National Congress (ANC).E be Minister of Justice na Correctional Services from May 2019 till June 2024. E dey member of ANC's National Executive Committee na National Working Committee. Before dis time, Lamola dey involved for African National Congress Youth League.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Justice minister Ronald Lamola visits Johannesburg court after gang bust-up|url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-06-06-justice-minister-ronald-lamola-visits-johannesburg-court-after-gang-bust-up/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=TimesLIVE|language=en-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-30|title=Ronald Lamola: Meet South Africa's new Justice Minister|url=https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/ronald-lamola-justice-minister/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=The South African|language=en-US}}</ref> == Early life den education == Ronald Ozzy Lamola dem born am on 21 November 1983 for town wey dem call am Bushbuckridge, wey dey part of South Africa's Transvaal Province dat time. E join ANC Youth League wen e be thirteen years old for 1996. For year 2000, e matriculated Mchacka High School.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-06-01|title=Ronald Lamola, 35: South Africa's youngest cabinet minister under Ramaphosa|url=https://www.povonews.com/profiles/person/ronald-lamola-35-south-africas-youngest-cabinet-minister-under-ramaphosa/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=Povo News|language=en-GB}}</ref> E soon go register for law degree for University of Venda. For de time wey e dey university, e be President of Student Representative Council (SRC) na Chairperson of South African Students Congress for Limpopo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UNIVEN graduate is appointed Minister of Justice and Correctional Services|url=http://www.univen.ac.za/news/univen-graduate-is-appointed-minister-of-justice-and-correctional-services/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=University of Venda|language=en-US}}</ref> E finish practical legal training degree from [[University of South Africa]] for 2006. Den for 2008, e get certificate wey be post-graduate for corporate law from same [[University of South Africa]]. E later get another post-graduate certificate for banking law na financial markets. Lamola get LLM for corporate law from University of Pretoria. E also get post-graduate certificate for telecommunications policy, regulation na management from [[University of the Witwatersrand|Wits Enterprise]]. E hold two master's degrees from [[University of Pretoria]]. == Early career == Lamola start e law career as lawyer for TMN Kgomo na Associates for 2006. E later go work as manager for Govan Mbeki Local Municipality for 2009. E be Director for Office of di Mpumalanga MEC for Culture, Sports na Recreation from 2009 till 2011. Short time after dat, for 2011, e take role as acting spokesperson for Mpumalanga Premier David Mabuza small time. E be former Deputy President of African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL). E serve alongside Youth League President Julius Malema before dem expel Malema from di position for 2012 for e bring party bad name. Lamola dey criticize former ANC President Jacob Zuma strong strong. E openly support Kgalema Motlanthe to take over from Zuma for 2012. For 2014 elections, Lamola be candidate for National Assembly say e dey 175th on ANC's national list. But because of how ANC perform for election, dem no elect am to Parliament.After ANCYL conference for 2015, Lamola disappear from public eye na e go manage e own law firm. == National Government == For 2017, Lamola endorse Cyril Ramaphosa make e become ANC President. For December dat same year, dem elect Lamola join National Executive Committee of ANC (NEC). Short time after dat, for January 2018, ANC NEC appoint am join party's National Working Committee, wey be di highest decision-making body for party. After May 2019 elections, Lamola go Parliament as Member of National Assembly. President Cyril Ramaphosa appoint am as Minister of Justice na Correctional Services on 29 May, na e take office di next day. For December 2022, dem re-elect Lamola to ANC NEC seat for party's 55th National Conference.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NEW ANC NEC list sees more women than men|url=https://ewn.co.za/2022/12/21/new-anc-nec-list-sees-more-women-than-men|access-date=2023-09-26|website=ewn.co.za|language=en}}</ref> Dem re-elect am to NWC for January 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harper|first=Paddy|date=2023-01-29|title=Ramaphosa consolidates control over ANC with clean sweep in national working committee|url=https://mg.co.za/politics/2023-01-29-ramaphosa-consolidates-control-over-anc-with-clean-sweep-in-national-working-committee-2/|access-date=2023-09-26|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> For September 2023, dem appoint Lamola as head of ANC NEC Sub-committee on Constitutional na Legal Affairs. E take over from Cyril Xaba, wey dem appoint as head of party's National Dispute Resolution Committee.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Masuabi|first=Queenin|date=2023-09-22|title=ANC NEC musical chairs sees Cyril Xaba step up for NDRC|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2023-09-22-anc-nec-musical-chairs-sees-cyril-xaba-step-up-for-ndrc-ronald-lamola-deployed-to-legal-affairs-sub-committee/|access-date=2023-09-26|website=Daily Maverick|language=en}}</ref> === Minister of International Relations and Cooperation === For July 3, 2024, dem swear Lamola in as Minister of International Relations na Cooperation. E take over from Naledi Pandor, na e join President Cyril Ramaphosa's third cabinet. Dis happen after dem form Government of National Unity (GNU) through big coalition, because ANC lose dem absolute majority for 2024 election. As Foreign Minister, Lamola get big responsibility to continue di strong foreign policy stance wey South Africa don develop, wey Naledi Pandor start am during her tenure.South Africa newspaper, Mail & Guardian, write say South Africa's foreign policy no go change under Lamola's leadership, e go still continue wit di strategy wey dem implement for sixth administration.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cele|first=Mpilo|date=2024-07-03|title=Ronald Lamola’s appointment signals continuity in South Africa’s foreign policy|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2024-07-03-ronald-lamolas-appointment-signals-continuity-in-south-africas-foreign-policy/|access-date=2025-01-09|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> === G20 Summit === Lamola yi go [[Brazil]] meet Brazil Foreign Minister Mauro Vieira for Itamaraty Palace bicos [[South Africa]] dey prepare host 2024 G20 summit, an dem dey hand over G20 presidency from Brazil give South Africa. During de meeting of de two Foreign Ministers underscored de significant contribution of de Global South to de G20,them mention de presidencies held by [[Indonesia]] (2022), [[India]] (2023), [[Brazil]] (2024) and, as of December 1, 2024, by South Africa. Them also talk say de prospects for de South African presidency na its role in de promoting key issues for de developing countries,wey them call as sustainable development, social inclusion na global governance reform. At de Summit Lamola emphasized de importance of following through on de promises to talk give de pressing global issues such as hunger, poverty, inequality, na climate change. Lamola dey select [[South Africa]]'s priorities for de 2025 G20 summit focusing on South Africa's Artificial Intelligence (AI) na Innovation as de transformative tool for development in bridging de technological gap between Africa na developed nations. Solidarity na Sustainability, Tourism na Global Opportunities na continued scrutiny na de accountability from de citizens to ensure de commitments wey them made at de G20 are realized<ref>{{Cite web|title=G20 Summit: Ronald Lamola Urges Global Accountability and Sets Focus on SA’s Presidency {{!}} Law-Order|url=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/law-order/3162991-g20-summit-ronald-lamola-urges-global-accountability-and-sets-focus-on-sas-presidency|access-date=2025-01-09|website=Devdiscourse|language=en}}</ref> === BRICS === === Palestine === For July 2024, Ramaphosa condemn Israel's occupation of Palestinian territories, e quote ICJ ruling wey confirm say Israel's occupation unlawful under international law, e say na wetin South Africa dey talk long time ago. For symposium on South Africa's national interests na global advancements, Lamola say South Africa go keep do dem best to preserve existence of Palestinian people as group..<ref>{{Cite web|title=South Africa to redouble its efforts in fight for Palestine — Ronald Lamola|url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2024-07-11-south-africa-to-redouble-its-efforts-in-fight-for-palestine-ronald-lamola/|access-date=2025-01-09}}</ref> === China === For September 2, 2024, Lamola meet Wang Yi, China Foreign Minister, for Beijing, dem attend FOCAC summit. FOCAC don promote Africa's development well well, na symbol of South-South cooperation, e drive international cooperation with Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bahrain News Agency|url=https://www.bna.bh/en/index.aspx|access-date=2025-01-09|website=www.bna.bh}}</ref> Lamola meet people wey dem discuss how dem fit strengthen dem bilateral relationship na dem prepare well well for 2024 Forum on china-Africa COoperation (FOCAC) summit wey dem go hold. Lamola dey talk about de upgraded relationship between South Africa and them [[China]], now dey sabi learn strategic partnership. Lamola dey alert South Africa's adherence to de one-China policy and its de support for China's global initiatives. He dey expressed his eagerness to work with de China to try dey enhance cooperation among de Global South countries. === United States === For September 2024, Lamola go [[United States]] for e first trip as Foreign Minister, na working visit to make South Africa na US relationship better.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maromo|first=Jonisayi|title=Minister Ronald Lamola on working visit to United States, seeking to enhance bilateral relations|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/minister-ronald-lamola-on-working-visit-to-united-states-seeking-to-enhance-bilateral-relations-606e66de-5df9-4893-bff2-c761951091c9|access-date=2025-01-09|website=www.iol.co.za|language=en}}</ref> During the visit, Lamola meet US Secretary of State Antony Blinken, dem talk say US na [[South Africa]] partnership important. Dem agree say dem go work together on things dem share like economic development, health diplomacy, na reforming multilateral institutions Lamola meet dem for Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 53rd meeting wey dem hold for Washington D.C.where he dey talk say that South Africa no like wetin happened to de people of Israel on 7 October, and that South Africa condemned am strong strong ,and e call dem for release de hostages.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Feinberg|first=Tali|date=2024-09-19|title=Lamola: One step forward, two steps back|url=https://www.sajr.co.za/lamola-one-step-forward-two-steps-back/|access-date=2025-01-09|website=Jewish Report|language=en-ZA}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Living people]] <references /> == External links == 2lr1n6sgk6mko6zrnqxn165fi3vljnq 67170 67168 2025-06-29T19:03:45Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67170 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ronald Ozzy Lamola''' (born 21 November 1983) be South African lawyer na politician wey dey serve as Minister of International Relations na Cooperation as Member of di National Assembly of South Africa since 22 May 2019 as member of di African National Congress (ANC). He be Minister of Justice na Correctional Services from May 2019 till June 2024. E dey member of ANC's National Executive Committee na National Working Committee. Before dis time, Lamola dey involved for African National Congress Youth League.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Justice minister Ronald Lamola visits Johannesburg court after gang bust-up|url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-06-06-justice-minister-ronald-lamola-visits-johannesburg-court-after-gang-bust-up/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=TimesLIVE|language=en-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-30|title=Ronald Lamola: Meet South Africa's new Justice Minister|url=https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/ronald-lamola-justice-minister/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=The South African|language=en-US}}</ref> == Early life den education == Ronald Ozzy Lamola dem born am on 21 November 1983 for town wey dem call am Bushbuckridge, wey dey part of South Africa's Transvaal Province dat time. E join ANC Youth League wen e be thirteen years old for 1996. For year 2000, e matriculated Mchacka High School.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-06-01|title=Ronald Lamola, 35: South Africa's youngest cabinet minister under Ramaphosa|url=https://www.povonews.com/profiles/person/ronald-lamola-35-south-africas-youngest-cabinet-minister-under-ramaphosa/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=Povo News|language=en-GB}}</ref> E soon go register for law degree for University of Venda. For de time wey e dey university, e be President of Student Representative Council (SRC) na Chairperson of South African Students Congress for Limpopo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UNIVEN graduate is appointed Minister of Justice and Correctional Services|url=http://www.univen.ac.za/news/univen-graduate-is-appointed-minister-of-justice-and-correctional-services/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=University of Venda|language=en-US}}</ref> E finish practical legal training degree from [[University of South Africa]] for 2006. Den for 2008, e get certificate wey be post-graduate for corporate law from same [[University of South Africa]]. E later get another post-graduate certificate for banking law na financial markets. Lamola get LLM for corporate law from University of Pretoria. E also get post-graduate certificate for telecommunications policy, regulation na management from [[University of the Witwatersrand|Wits Enterprise]]. E hold two master's degrees from [[University of Pretoria]]. == Early career == Lamola start e law career as lawyer for TMN Kgomo na Associates for 2006. E later go work as manager for Govan Mbeki Local Municipality for 2009. E be Director for Office of di Mpumalanga MEC for Culture, Sports na Recreation from 2009 till 2011. Short time after dat, for 2011, e take role as acting spokesperson for Mpumalanga Premier David Mabuza small time. E be former Deputy President of African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL). E serve alongside Youth League President Julius Malema before dem expel Malema from di position for 2012 for e bring party bad name. Lamola dey criticize former ANC President Jacob Zuma strong strong. E openly support Kgalema Motlanthe to take over from Zuma for 2012. For 2014 elections, Lamola be candidate for National Assembly say e dey 175th on ANC's national list. But because of how ANC perform for election, dem no elect am to Parliament.After ANCYL conference for 2015, Lamola disappear from public eye na e go manage e own law firm. == National Government == For 2017, Lamola endorse Cyril Ramaphosa make e become ANC President. For December dat same year, dem elect Lamola join National Executive Committee of ANC (NEC). Short time after dat, for January 2018, ANC NEC appoint am join party's National Working Committee, wey be di highest decision-making body for party. After May 2019 elections, Lamola go Parliament as Member of National Assembly. President Cyril Ramaphosa appoint am as Minister of Justice na Correctional Services on 29 May, na e take office di next day. For December 2022, dem re-elect Lamola to ANC NEC seat for party's 55th National Conference.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NEW ANC NEC list sees more women than men|url=https://ewn.co.za/2022/12/21/new-anc-nec-list-sees-more-women-than-men|access-date=2023-09-26|website=ewn.co.za|language=en}}</ref> Dem re-elect am to NWC for January 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harper|first=Paddy|date=2023-01-29|title=Ramaphosa consolidates control over ANC with clean sweep in national working committee|url=https://mg.co.za/politics/2023-01-29-ramaphosa-consolidates-control-over-anc-with-clean-sweep-in-national-working-committee-2/|access-date=2023-09-26|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> For September 2023, dem appoint Lamola as head of ANC NEC Sub-committee on Constitutional na Legal Affairs. E take over from Cyril Xaba, wey dem appoint as head of party's National Dispute Resolution Committee.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Masuabi|first=Queenin|date=2023-09-22|title=ANC NEC musical chairs sees Cyril Xaba step up for NDRC|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2023-09-22-anc-nec-musical-chairs-sees-cyril-xaba-step-up-for-ndrc-ronald-lamola-deployed-to-legal-affairs-sub-committee/|access-date=2023-09-26|website=Daily Maverick|language=en}}</ref> === Minister of International Relations and Cooperation === For July 3, 2024, dem swear Lamola in as Minister of International Relations na Cooperation. E take over from Naledi Pandor, na e join President Cyril Ramaphosa's third cabinet. Dis happen after dem form Government of National Unity (GNU) through big coalition, because ANC lose dem absolute majority for 2024 election. As Foreign Minister, Lamola get big responsibility to continue di strong foreign policy stance wey South Africa don develop, wey Naledi Pandor start am during her tenure.South Africa newspaper, Mail & Guardian, write say South Africa's foreign policy no go change under Lamola's leadership, e go still continue wit di strategy wey dem implement for sixth administration.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cele|first=Mpilo|date=2024-07-03|title=Ronald Lamola’s appointment signals continuity in South Africa’s foreign policy|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2024-07-03-ronald-lamolas-appointment-signals-continuity-in-south-africas-foreign-policy/|access-date=2025-01-09|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> === G20 Summit === Lamola yi go [[Brazil]] meet Brazil Foreign Minister Mauro Vieira for Itamaraty Palace bicos [[South Africa]] dey prepare host 2024 G20 summit, an dem dey hand over G20 presidency from Brazil give South Africa. During de meeting of de two Foreign Ministers underscored de significant contribution of de Global South to de G20,them mention de presidencies held by [[Indonesia]] (2022), [[India]] (2023), [[Brazil]] (2024) and, as of December 1, 2024, by South Africa. Them also talk say de prospects for de South African presidency na its role in de promoting key issues for de developing countries,wey them call as sustainable development, social inclusion na global governance reform. At de Summit Lamola emphasized de importance of following through on de promises to talk give de pressing global issues such as hunger, poverty, inequality, na climate change. Lamola dey select [[South Africa]]'s priorities for de 2025 G20 summit focusing on South Africa's Artificial Intelligence (AI) na Innovation as de transformative tool for development in bridging de technological gap between Africa na developed nations. Solidarity na Sustainability, Tourism na Global Opportunities na continued scrutiny na de accountability from de citizens to ensure de commitments wey them made at de G20 are realized<ref>{{Cite web|title=G20 Summit: Ronald Lamola Urges Global Accountability and Sets Focus on SA’s Presidency {{!}} Law-Order|url=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/law-order/3162991-g20-summit-ronald-lamola-urges-global-accountability-and-sets-focus-on-sas-presidency|access-date=2025-01-09|website=Devdiscourse|language=en}}</ref> === BRICS === === Palestine === For July 2024, Ramaphosa condemn Israel's occupation of Palestinian territories, e quote ICJ ruling wey confirm say Israel's occupation unlawful under international law, e say na wetin South Africa dey talk long time ago. For symposium on South Africa's national interests na global advancements, Lamola say South Africa go keep do dem best to preserve existence of Palestinian people as group..<ref>{{Cite web|title=South Africa to redouble its efforts in fight for Palestine — Ronald Lamola|url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2024-07-11-south-africa-to-redouble-its-efforts-in-fight-for-palestine-ronald-lamola/|access-date=2025-01-09}}</ref> === China === For September 2, 2024, Lamola meet Wang Yi, China Foreign Minister, for Beijing, dem attend FOCAC summit. FOCAC don promote Africa's development well well, na symbol of South-South cooperation, e drive international cooperation with Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bahrain News Agency|url=https://www.bna.bh/en/index.aspx|access-date=2025-01-09|website=www.bna.bh}}</ref> Lamola meet people wey dem discuss how dem fit strengthen dem bilateral relationship na dem prepare well well for 2024 Forum on china-Africa COoperation (FOCAC) summit wey dem go hold. Lamola dey talk about de upgraded relationship between South Africa and them [[China]], now dey sabi learn strategic partnership. Lamola dey alert South Africa's adherence to de one-China policy and its de support for China's global initiatives. He dey expressed his eagerness to work with de China to try dey enhance cooperation among de Global South countries. === United States === For September 2024, Lamola go [[United States]] for e first trip as Foreign Minister, na working visit to make South Africa na US relationship better.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maromo|first=Jonisayi|title=Minister Ronald Lamola on working visit to United States, seeking to enhance bilateral relations|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/minister-ronald-lamola-on-working-visit-to-united-states-seeking-to-enhance-bilateral-relations-606e66de-5df9-4893-bff2-c761951091c9|access-date=2025-01-09|website=www.iol.co.za|language=en}}</ref> During the visit, Lamola meet US Secretary of State Antony Blinken, dem talk say US na [[South Africa]] partnership important. Dem agree say dem go work together on things dem share like economic development, health diplomacy, na reforming multilateral institutions Lamola meet dem for Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 53rd meeting wey dem hold for Washington D.C.where he dey talk say that South Africa no like wetin happened to de people of Israel on 7 October, and that South Africa condemned am strong strong ,and e call dem for release de hostages.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Feinberg|first=Tali|date=2024-09-19|title=Lamola: One step forward, two steps back|url=https://www.sajr.co.za/lamola-one-step-forward-two-steps-back/|access-date=2025-01-09|website=Jewish Report|language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Ein life matter == Lamola marry Bawinile "Winnie" Msiza at de Cunning Moor insyd Bushbuckridge, Mpumalanga, on 8 March 2013.<ref>[https://www.news24.com/Drum/Archive/ancyls-ronald-lamola-weds-20170728 ANCYL's Ronald Lamola weds]. Retrieved on 12 June 2019.</ref> Lamola be de son of a Swati mommie den Shangani poppie.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wiener|first=Mandy|title=Ronald Lamola: 'I'm no comeback kid'|url=https://www.news24.com/news24/opinions/analysis/justice-minister-ronald-lamola-im-no-comeback-kid-20190704|access-date=2025-01-09|website=News24|language=en-US}}</ref> Lamola sanso be an avid Mountain Biker den supporter of South African football team, Kaizer Chiefs. == References == [[Category:Living people]] <references /> == External links == tfjt31gt5u6kk2xgpznpdqjupzpk8m9 67172 67170 2025-06-29T19:07:02Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67172 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ronald Ozzy Lamola''' (born 21 November 1983) be South African lawyer na politician wey dey serve as Minister of International Relations na Cooperation as Member of di National Assembly of South Africa since 22 May 2019 as member of di African National Congress (ANC). He be Minister of Justice na Correctional Services from May 2019 till June 2024. E dey member of ANC's National Executive Committee na National Working Committee. Before dis time, Lamola dey involved for African National Congress Youth League.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Justice minister Ronald Lamola visits Johannesburg court after gang bust-up|url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-06-06-justice-minister-ronald-lamola-visits-johannesburg-court-after-gang-bust-up/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=TimesLIVE|language=en-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-30|title=Ronald Lamola: Meet South Africa's new Justice Minister|url=https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/ronald-lamola-justice-minister/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=The South African|language=en-US}}</ref> == Early life den education == Ronald Ozzy Lamola dem born am on 21 November 1983 for town wey dem call am Bushbuckridge, wey dey part of South Africa's Transvaal Province dat time. E join ANC Youth League wen e be thirteen years old for 1996. For year 2000, e matriculated Mchacka High School.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-06-01|title=Ronald Lamola, 35: South Africa's youngest cabinet minister under Ramaphosa|url=https://www.povonews.com/profiles/person/ronald-lamola-35-south-africas-youngest-cabinet-minister-under-ramaphosa/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=Povo News|language=en-GB}}</ref> E soon go register for law degree for University of Venda. For de time wey e dey university, e be President of Student Representative Council (SRC) na Chairperson of South African Students Congress for Limpopo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UNIVEN graduate is appointed Minister of Justice and Correctional Services|url=http://www.univen.ac.za/news/univen-graduate-is-appointed-minister-of-justice-and-correctional-services/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=University of Venda|language=en-US}}</ref> E finish practical legal training degree from [[University of South Africa]] for 2006. Den for 2008, e get certificate wey be post-graduate for corporate law from same [[University of South Africa]]. E later get another post-graduate certificate for banking law na financial markets. Lamola get LLM for corporate law from University of Pretoria. E also get post-graduate certificate for telecommunications policy, regulation na management from [[University of the Witwatersrand|Wits Enterprise]]. E hold two master's degrees from [[University of Pretoria]]. == Early career == Lamola start e law career as lawyer for TMN Kgomo na Associates for 2006. E later go work as manager for Govan Mbeki Local Municipality for 2009. E be Director for Office of di Mpumalanga MEC for Culture, Sports na Recreation from 2009 till 2011. Short time after dat, for 2011, e take role as acting spokesperson for Mpumalanga Premier David Mabuza small time. E be former Deputy President of African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL). E serve alongside Youth League President Julius Malema before dem expel Malema from di position for 2012 for e bring party bad name. Lamola dey criticize former ANC President Jacob Zuma strong strong. E openly support Kgalema Motlanthe to take over from Zuma for 2012. For 2014 elections, Lamola be candidate for National Assembly say e dey 175th on ANC's national list. But because of how ANC perform for election, dem no elect am to Parliament.After ANCYL conference for 2015, Lamola disappear from public eye na e go manage e own law firm. == National Government == For 2017, Lamola endorse Cyril Ramaphosa make e become ANC President. For December dat same year, dem elect Lamola join National Executive Committee of ANC (NEC). Short time after dat, for January 2018, ANC NEC appoint am join party's National Working Committee, wey be di highest decision-making body for party. After May 2019 elections, Lamola go Parliament as Member of National Assembly. President Cyril Ramaphosa appoint am as Minister of Justice na Correctional Services on 29 May, na e take office di next day. For December 2022, dem re-elect Lamola to ANC NEC seat for party's 55th National Conference.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NEW ANC NEC list sees more women than men|url=https://ewn.co.za/2022/12/21/new-anc-nec-list-sees-more-women-than-men|access-date=2023-09-26|website=ewn.co.za|language=en}}</ref> Dem re-elect am to NWC for January 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harper|first=Paddy|date=2023-01-29|title=Ramaphosa consolidates control over ANC with clean sweep in national working committee|url=https://mg.co.za/politics/2023-01-29-ramaphosa-consolidates-control-over-anc-with-clean-sweep-in-national-working-committee-2/|access-date=2023-09-26|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> For September 2023, dem appoint Lamola as head of ANC NEC Sub-committee on Constitutional na Legal Affairs. E take over from Cyril Xaba, wey dem appoint as head of party's National Dispute Resolution Committee.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Masuabi|first=Queenin|date=2023-09-22|title=ANC NEC musical chairs sees Cyril Xaba step up for NDRC|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2023-09-22-anc-nec-musical-chairs-sees-cyril-xaba-step-up-for-ndrc-ronald-lamola-deployed-to-legal-affairs-sub-committee/|access-date=2023-09-26|website=Daily Maverick|language=en}}</ref> === Minister of International Relations and Cooperation === For July 3, 2024, dem swear Lamola in as Minister of International Relations na Cooperation. E take over from Naledi Pandor, na e join President Cyril Ramaphosa's third cabinet. Dis happen after dem form Government of National Unity (GNU) through big coalition, because ANC lose dem absolute majority for 2024 election. As Foreign Minister, Lamola get big responsibility to continue di strong foreign policy stance wey South Africa don develop, wey Naledi Pandor start am during her tenure.South Africa newspaper, Mail & Guardian, write say South Africa's foreign policy no go change under Lamola's leadership, e go still continue wit di strategy wey dem implement for sixth administration.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cele|first=Mpilo|date=2024-07-03|title=Ronald Lamola’s appointment signals continuity in South Africa’s foreign policy|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2024-07-03-ronald-lamolas-appointment-signals-continuity-in-south-africas-foreign-policy/|access-date=2025-01-09|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> === G20 Summit === Lamola yi go [[Brazil]] meet Brazil Foreign Minister Mauro Vieira for Itamaraty Palace bicos [[South Africa]] dey prepare host 2024 G20 summit, an dem dey hand over G20 presidency from Brazil give South Africa. During de meeting of de two Foreign Ministers underscored de significant contribution of de Global South to de G20,them mention de presidencies held by [[Indonesia]] (2022), [[India]] (2023), [[Brazil]] (2024) and, as of December 1, 2024, by South Africa. Them also talk say de prospects for de South African presidency na its role in de promoting key issues for de developing countries,wey them call as sustainable development, social inclusion na global governance reform. At de Summit Lamola emphasized de importance of following through on de promises to talk give de pressing global issues such as hunger, poverty, inequality, na climate change. Lamola dey select [[South Africa]]'s priorities for de 2025 G20 summit focusing on South Africa's Artificial Intelligence (AI) na Innovation as de transformative tool for development in bridging de technological gap between Africa na developed nations. Solidarity na Sustainability, Tourism na Global Opportunities na continued scrutiny na de accountability from de citizens to ensure de commitments wey them made at de G20 are realized<ref>{{Cite web|title=G20 Summit: Ronald Lamola Urges Global Accountability and Sets Focus on SA’s Presidency {{!}} Law-Order|url=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/law-order/3162991-g20-summit-ronald-lamola-urges-global-accountability-and-sets-focus-on-sas-presidency|access-date=2025-01-09|website=Devdiscourse|language=en}}</ref> === BRICS === === Palestine === For July 2024, Ramaphosa condemn Israel's occupation of Palestinian territories, e quote ICJ ruling wey confirm say Israel's occupation unlawful under international law, e say na wetin South Africa dey talk long time ago. For symposium on South Africa's national interests na global advancements, Lamola say South Africa go keep do dem best to preserve existence of Palestinian people as group..<ref>{{Cite web|title=South Africa to redouble its efforts in fight for Palestine — Ronald Lamola|url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2024-07-11-south-africa-to-redouble-its-efforts-in-fight-for-palestine-ronald-lamola/|access-date=2025-01-09}}</ref> === China === For September 2, 2024, Lamola meet Wang Yi, China Foreign Minister, for Beijing, dem attend FOCAC summit. FOCAC don promote Africa's development well well, na symbol of South-South cooperation, e drive international cooperation with Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bahrain News Agency|url=https://www.bna.bh/en/index.aspx|access-date=2025-01-09|website=www.bna.bh}}</ref> Lamola meet people wey dem discuss how dem fit strengthen dem bilateral relationship na dem prepare well well for 2024 Forum on china-Africa COoperation (FOCAC) summit wey dem go hold. Lamola dey talk about de upgraded relationship between South Africa and them [[China]], now dey sabi learn strategic partnership. Lamola dey alert South Africa's adherence to de one-China policy and its de support for China's global initiatives. He dey expressed his eagerness to work with de China to try dey enhance cooperation among de Global South countries. === United States === For September 2024, Lamola go [[United States]] for e first trip as Foreign Minister, na working visit to make South Africa na US relationship better.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maromo|first=Jonisayi|title=Minister Ronald Lamola on working visit to United States, seeking to enhance bilateral relations|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/minister-ronald-lamola-on-working-visit-to-united-states-seeking-to-enhance-bilateral-relations-606e66de-5df9-4893-bff2-c761951091c9|access-date=2025-01-09|website=www.iol.co.za|language=en}}</ref> During the visit, Lamola meet US Secretary of State Antony Blinken, dem talk say US na [[South Africa]] partnership important. Dem agree say dem go work together on things dem share like economic development, health diplomacy, na reforming multilateral institutions Lamola meet dem for Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 53rd meeting wey dem hold for Washington D.C.where he dey talk say that South Africa no like wetin happened to de people of Israel on 7 October, and that South Africa condemned am strong strong ,and e call dem for release de hostages.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Feinberg|first=Tali|date=2024-09-19|title=Lamola: One step forward, two steps back|url=https://www.sajr.co.za/lamola-one-step-forward-two-steps-back/|access-date=2025-01-09|website=Jewish Report|language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Ein life matter == Lamola marry Bawinile "Winnie" Msiza at de Cunning Moor insyd Bushbuckridge, Mpumalanga, on 8 March 2013.<ref>[https://www.news24.com/Drum/Archive/ancyls-ronald-lamola-weds-20170728 ANCYL's Ronald Lamola weds]. Retrieved on 12 June 2019.</ref> Lamola be de son of a Swati mommie den Shangani poppie.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wiener|first=Mandy|title=Ronald Lamola: 'I'm no comeback kid'|url=https://www.news24.com/news24/opinions/analysis/justice-minister-ronald-lamola-im-no-comeback-kid-20190704|access-date=2025-01-09|website=News24|language=en-US}}</ref> Lamola sanso be an avid Mountain Biker den supporter of South African football team, Kaizer Chiefs. == References == [[Category:Living people]] <references /> == External links == {{Commons}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Lamola, Ronald}} [[Category:Human]] [[Category:South African people]] [[Category:1983 births]] [[Category:People wey komot Bushbuckridge Local Municipality]] [[Category:African National Congress politicians]] [[Category:Members of de National Assembly of South Africa 2024–2029]] [[Category:Government ministers of South Africa]] [[Category:Justice ministers of South Africa]] [[Category:Members of de National Assembly of South Africa 2019–2024]] bxajx91bfauc8yydcgspbqpbyjh4fu9 67174 67172 2025-06-29T19:12:29Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67174 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Ronald Ozzy Lamola''' (born 21 November 1983) be South African lawyer na politician wey dey serve as Minister of International Relations na Cooperation as Member of de National Assembly of South Africa since 22 May 2019 as member of de African National Congress (ANC). He be Minister of Justice na Correctional Services from May 2019 till June 2024. E dey member of ANC's National Executive Committee na National Working Committee. Before dis time, Lamola dey involved for African National Congress Youth League.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Justice minister Ronald Lamola visits Johannesburg court after gang bust-up|url=https://www.timeslive.co.za/news/south-africa/2019-06-06-justice-minister-ronald-lamola-visits-johannesburg-court-after-gang-bust-up/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=TimesLIVE|language=en-ZA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-30|title=Ronald Lamola: Meet South Africa's new Justice Minister|url=https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/ronald-lamola-justice-minister/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=The South African|language=en-US}}</ref> == Early life den education == Ronald Ozzy Lamola dem born am on 21 November 1983 for town wey dem call am Bushbuckridge, wey dey part of South Africa's Transvaal Province dat time. E join ANC Youth League wen e be thirteen years old for 1996. For year 2000, e matriculated Mchacka High School.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-06-01|title=Ronald Lamola, 35: South Africa's youngest cabinet minister under Ramaphosa|url=https://www.povonews.com/profiles/person/ronald-lamola-35-south-africas-youngest-cabinet-minister-under-ramaphosa/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=Povo News|language=en-GB}}</ref> E soon go register for law degree for University of Venda. For de time wey e dey university, e be President of Student Representative Council (SRC) na Chairperson of South African Students Congress for Limpopo.<ref>{{Cite web|title=UNIVEN graduate is appointed Minister of Justice and Correctional Services|url=http://www.univen.ac.za/news/univen-graduate-is-appointed-minister-of-justice-and-correctional-services/|access-date=2019-06-12|website=University of Venda|language=en-US}}</ref> E finish practical legal training degree from [[University of South Africa]] for 2006. Den for 2008, e get certificate wey be post-graduate for corporate law from same [[University of South Africa]]. E later get another post-graduate certificate for banking law na financial markets. Lamola get LLM for corporate law from University of Pretoria. E also get post-graduate certificate for telecommunications policy, regulation na management from [[University of the Witwatersrand|Wits Enterprise]]. E hold two master's degrees from [[University of Pretoria]]. == Early career == Lamola start e law career as lawyer for TMN Kgomo na Associates for 2006. E later go work as manager for Govan Mbeki Local Municipality for 2009. E be Director for Office of de Mpumalanga MEC for Culture, Sports na Recreation from 2009 till 2011. Short time after dat, for 2011, e take role as acting spokesperson for Mpumalanga Premier David Mabuza small time. E be former Deputy President of African National Congress Youth League (ANCYL). E serve alongside Youth League President Julius Malema before dem expel Malema from de position for 2012 for e bring party bad name. Lamola dey criticize former ANC President Jacob Zuma strong strong. E openly support Kgalema Motlanthe to take over from Zuma for 2012. For 2014 elections, Lamola be candidate for National Assembly say e dey 175th on ANC's national list. But because of how ANC perform for election, dem no elect am to Parliament.After ANCYL conference for 2015, Lamola disappear from public eye na e go manage e own law firm. == National Government == For 2017, Lamola endorse Cyril Ramaphosa make e become ANC President. For December dat same year, dem elect Lamola join National Executive Committee of ANC (NEC). Short time after dat, for January 2018, ANC NEC appoint am join party's National Working Committee, wey be de highest decision-making body for party. After May 2019 elections, Lamola go Parliament as Member of National Assembly. President Cyril Ramaphosa appoint am as Minister of Justice na Correctional Services on 29 May, na e take office de next day. For December 2022, dem re-elect Lamola to ANC NEC seat for party's 55th National Conference.<ref>{{Cite web|title=NEW ANC NEC list sees more women than men|url=https://ewn.co.za/2022/12/21/new-anc-nec-list-sees-more-women-than-men|access-date=2023-09-26|website=ewn.co.za|language=en}}</ref> Dem re-elect am to NWC for January 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Harper|first=Paddy|date=2023-01-29|title=Ramaphosa consolidates control over ANC with clean sweep in national working committee|url=https://mg.co.za/politics/2023-01-29-ramaphosa-consolidates-control-over-anc-with-clean-sweep-in-national-working-committee-2/|access-date=2023-09-26|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> For September 2023, dem appoint Lamola as head of ANC NEC Sub-committee on Constitutional na Legal Affairs. E take over from Cyril Xaba, wey dem appoint as head of party's National Dispute Resolution Committee.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Masuabi|first=Queenin|date=2023-09-22|title=ANC NEC musical chairs sees Cyril Xaba step up for NDRC|url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2023-09-22-anc-nec-musical-chairs-sees-cyril-xaba-step-up-for-ndrc-ronald-lamola-deployed-to-legal-affairs-sub-committee/|access-date=2023-09-26|website=Daily Maverick|language=en}}</ref> === Minister of International Relations and Cooperation === For July 3, 2024, dem swear Lamola in as Minister of International Relations na Cooperation. E take over from Naledi Pandor, na e join President Cyril Ramaphosa's third cabinet. Dis happen after dem form Government of National Unity (GNU) through big coalition, because ANC lose dem absolute majority for 2024 election. As Foreign Minister, Lamola get big responsibility to continue de strong foreign policy stance wey South Africa don develop, wey Naledi Pandor start am during her tenure.South Africa newspaper, Mail & Guardian, write say South Africa's foreign policy no go change under Lamola's leadership, e go still continue wit de strategy wey dem implement for sixth administration.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Cele|first=Mpilo|date=2024-07-03|title=Ronald Lamola’s appointment signals continuity in South Africa’s foreign policy|url=https://mg.co.za/article/2024-07-03-ronald-lamolas-appointment-signals-continuity-in-south-africas-foreign-policy/|access-date=2025-01-09|website=The Mail & Guardian|language=en-ZA}}</ref> === G20 Summit === Lamola yi go [[Brazil]] meet Brazil Foreign Minister Mauro Vieira for Itamaraty Palace bicos [[South Africa]] dey prepare host 2024 G20 summit, an dem dey hand over G20 presidency from Brazil give South Africa. During de meeting of de two Foreign Ministers underscored de significant contribution of de Global South to de G20,them mention de presidencies held by [[Indonesia]] (2022), [[India]] (2023), [[Brazil]] (2024) and, as of December 1, 2024, by South Africa. Them also talk say de prospects for de South African presidency na its role in de promoting key issues for de developing countries,wey them call as sustainable development, social inclusion na global governance reform. At de Summit Lamola emphasized de importance of following through on de promises to talk give de pressing global issues such as hunger, poverty, inequality, na climate change. Lamola dey select [[South Africa]]'s priorities for de 2025 G20 summit focusing on South Africa's Artificial Intelligence (AI) na Innovation as de transformative tool for development in bridging de technological gap between Africa na developed nations. Solidarity na Sustainability, Tourism na Global Opportunities na continued scrutiny na de accountability from de citizens to ensure de commitments wey them made at de G20 are realized<ref>{{Cite web|title=G20 Summit: Ronald Lamola Urges Global Accountability and Sets Focus on SA’s Presidency {{!}} Law-Order|url=https://www.devdiscourse.com/article/law-order/3162991-g20-summit-ronald-lamola-urges-global-accountability-and-sets-focus-on-sas-presidency|access-date=2025-01-09|website=Devdiscourse|language=en}}</ref> === BRICS === === Palestine === For July 2024, Ramaphosa condemn Israel's occupation of Palestinian territories, e quote ICJ ruling wey confirm say Israel's occupation unlawful under international law, e say na wetin South Africa dey talk long time ago. For symposium on South Africa's national interests na global advancements, Lamola say South Africa go keep do dem best to preserve existence of Palestinian people as group..<ref>{{Cite web|title=South Africa to redouble its efforts in fight for Palestine — Ronald Lamola|url=https://www.sowetanlive.co.za/news/south-africa/2024-07-11-south-africa-to-redouble-its-efforts-in-fight-for-palestine-ronald-lamola/|access-date=2025-01-09}}</ref> === China === For September 2, 2024, Lamola meet Wang Yi, China Foreign Minister, for Beijing, dem attend FOCAC summit. FOCAC don promote Africa's development well well, na symbol of South-South cooperation, e drive international cooperation with Africa.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Bahrain News Agency|url=https://www.bna.bh/en/index.aspx|access-date=2025-01-09|website=www.bna.bh}}</ref> Lamola meet people wey dem discuss how dem fit strengthen dem bilateral relationship na dem prepare well well for 2024 Forum on china-Africa COoperation (FOCAC) summit wey dem go hold. Lamola dey talk about de upgraded relationship between South Africa and them [[China]], now dey sabi learn strategic partnership. Lamola dey alert South Africa's adherence to de one-China policy and its de support for China's global initiatives. He dey expressed his eagerness to work with de China to try dey enhance cooperation among de Global South countries. === United States === For September 2024, Lamola go [[United States]] for e first trip as Foreign Minister, na working visit to make South Africa na US relationship better.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Maromo|first=Jonisayi|title=Minister Ronald Lamola on working visit to United States, seeking to enhance bilateral relations|url=https://www.iol.co.za/news/politics/minister-ronald-lamola-on-working-visit-to-united-states-seeking-to-enhance-bilateral-relations-606e66de-5df9-4893-bff2-c761951091c9|access-date=2025-01-09|website=www.iol.co.za|language=en}}</ref> During the visit, Lamola meet US Secretary of State Antony Blinken, dem talk say US na [[South Africa]] partnership important. Dem agree say dem go work together on things dem share like economic development, health diplomacy, na reforming multilateral institutions Lamola meet dem for Congressional Black Caucus Foundation 53rd meeting wey dem hold for Washington D.C.where he dey talk say that South Africa no like wetin happened to de people of Israel on 7 October, and that South Africa condemned am strong strong ,and e call dem for release de hostages.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Feinberg|first=Tali|date=2024-09-19|title=Lamola: One step forward, two steps back|url=https://www.sajr.co.za/lamola-one-step-forward-two-steps-back/|access-date=2025-01-09|website=Jewish Report|language=en-ZA}}</ref> == Ein life matter == Lamola marry Bawinile "Winnie" Msiza at de Cunning Moor insyd Bushbuckridge, Mpumalanga, on 8 March 2013.<ref>[https://www.news24.com/Drum/Archive/ancyls-ronald-lamola-weds-20170728 ANCYL's Ronald Lamola weds]. Retrieved on 12 June 2019.</ref> Lamola be de son of a Swati mommie den Shangani poppie.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Wiener|first=Mandy|title=Ronald Lamola: 'I'm no comeback kid'|url=https://www.news24.com/news24/opinions/analysis/justice-minister-ronald-lamola-im-no-comeback-kid-20190704|access-date=2025-01-09|website=News24|language=en-US}}</ref> Lamola sanso be an avid Mountain Biker den supporter of South African football team, Kaizer Chiefs. == References == [[Category:Living people]] <references /> == External links == {{Commons}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Lamola, Ronald}} [[Category:Human]] [[Category:South African people]] [[Category:1983 births]] [[Category:People wey komot Bushbuckridge Local Municipality]] [[Category:African National Congress politicians]] [[Category:Members of de National Assembly of South Africa 2024–2029]] [[Category:Government ministers of South Africa]] [[Category:Justice ministers of South Africa]] [[Category:Members of de National Assembly of South Africa 2019–2024]] [[Category:University of South Africa alumni]] [[Category:University of Pretoria alumni]] jyrlpz15wy2mgei1f87ird9bpt07s5s 0 17508 67159 64439 2025-06-29T18:49:17Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 67159 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ Databox}} '''Houari Boumédiène''' ((Arabic: هواري بومدين, <small>romanized:</small> ''Hawwārī Būmadyan''; born '''Mohammed ben Brahim Boukharouba'''; 23 August 1932 – 27 December 1978) na he be [[Algeria]]n military officer plus politician wey be de second head of state of independent Algeria from 1965 until ein death for 1978. Na he serve as Chairman of de Revolutionary Council of Algeria from 19 June 1965 upto 12 December 1976 den after dat he serve as president of Algeria til he die. Na dem born am for Guelma, Mohammed ben Brahmin Boukharouba get ein education at de Islamic Institute for Constantine. For 1955, he join de National Liberation Front (FLN) wey he adopt de ''nom de guerre'' Houari Boumediene. By 1960, he rise through de organization ein ranks to become de commander of de FLN's military wing. After de FLN's victory over de French for de Algerian War of Independence for 1962, Boumediene become de Minister of Defense for Algeria's new government. However, for June 1965, him overthrow President Ben Bella insyd bloodless coup before he proceed to cancel de Algeria's parliament along with its constitution plus ultimately him become de country en acting head of state. For de 1970s, Boumediene initiate a gradual restoration of parliamentarism plus civil institutions for Algeria. Dis process do end with de adoption of de new constitution for 1976. Dem reinstate de presidency den Boumediene come out as de sole candidate for an election later dat year, winning with 99.46 per cent of de votes. Subsequently, Him pursue Arab socialist and Pan-Arabist policies. Him no dey like Israel at all, so him help anti-colonial movements den freedom fighters for de Arab world plus Africa with support plus logistics. From early 1978, Boumediene no dey show for public like before. Him die on December 27, 1978, after dem try treat am for one rare blood cancer wey no work, dem dey call am Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia. Ein funeral pull crowd, as two million people come mourn am.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|title=Algerians Mourn Death of Boumediene|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/12/28/algerians-mourn-death-of-boumediene/8dde9acb-74af-4b47-a862-08f5569062ae/|access-date=2023-03-28|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Na Chadli Bendjedid take over as president after am. == Early life plus Fight for Independence == [[File:The_house_where_the_late_Algerian_President_Houari_Boumediene_was_born_(Guelma_peovince).jpg|left|thumb|De house where dem born Boumediene for Douar Beni Aadi]] [[File:Houari_Boumediène_-_War_of_Independence.jpg|left|thumb|Boumediène during de Algerian War of Independence]] Information for Boumédiène ein early life no really dey like dat. De place wey dem bon am dey show as Guelma, Clauzel village wey dey near Guelma, or Héliopolis, plus ein date of birth be say na 16 August 1925, 23 August 1927, or for plenty source 1932.<ref name="Leonard2013">{{Cite book|last=Thomas M. Leonard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=We-OAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA191|title=Encyclopedia of the Developing World|date=18 October 2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-20515-7|page=191}}</ref> Ein papa talk say him date of birth na 23 August 1932 for interview insyd1965 Ein birth name be Mohammed ben Brahim Boukherouba plus eim papa be broke wheat farmer, Arab man wey be strict Muslim, plus e no sabi French at all.<ref name="Horne2012">{{Cite book|last=Alistair Horne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4-UHiZTlpMC&pg=PR29|title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4472-3343-5|page=29}}</ref><ref name="EvansPhillips2007">{{Cite book|last=Martin Evans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6J5WNbL9e4C&pg=PA65|title=Algeria: Anger of the Dispossessed|last2=John Phillips|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-300-10881-1|page=65}}</ref> Per de Encyclopaedia of Islam, na ein family dey speak Arabic plus e get Berber roots. E go school for Quranic school for Guelma till e reach 14years, den e move go Arabic secondary school for Constantine.<ref name="Smith" /> For 1952, wen France de recruit Algerian pipo to fight for de Indochina War, Boumédiène don go Cairo, where him de study for de [[Al-Azhar University]]. Na e be dere him first meet [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]. Ein join National Liberation Front (FLN) for de time of de Algerian War of Independence for 1955, take Houari Boumédiène as him war name (from Sidi Boumediène, wey be de patron saint of Tlemcen city for western Algeria, where he dey serve as officer during de war, plus Sidi El Houari, wey be de patron saint for nearby Oran). E rise to colonel rank, den highest rank for de FLN forces, plus from 1960, e become de chief of staff for ALN, de military side of FLN. Na him don marry Anissa al-Mansali dat time. == After independence == [[File:Ben_bella_and_Boumediene.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|Boumediene with Ahmed Ben Bella for 1962.]] For 1962, after dem do referendum, Algeria take declare im independence, plus French government no get wahala with dat one. Boumédiène plus Ahmed Ben Bella come push out de provisional government wey Benyoucef Benkhedda dey run with support from di ALN for 1962. Boumédiène be di big man for military side insyde de government, plus him be defence minister wey de Algerian president Ahmed Ben Bella put am, cause him help am waka come power like chief of staff. Later, Boumédiène come be Vice President of Algeria for September 1963.<ref name="algeriancabinets">{{Cite web|last=Ottaway|first=Professor Marina|last2=Ottaway|first2=David|last3=Ottaway|first3=Marina|date=December 15, 1970|title=Algeria: The Politics of a Socialist Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp8IfVxOcEQC&pg=PA294|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521144545/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp8IfVxOcEQC&pg=PA294#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=May 21, 2024|access-date=December 15, 2019|publisher=University of California Press|via=Google Books}}</ref> E start dey trust Ben Bella less den less sake of how e dey rule anyhow plus e too strict with ideology. So for June 1965, Boumédiène take power by force but em no shed any blood. Dem don wipe away de constitution plus political system for de country, plus him dey rule through him own Revolutionary Council wey him military paddy dem dey support am. Plenty of dem be him guys from de war times, wen e dey chill for de Moroccan border town Oujda, wey make analysts dey talk say 'Oujda Group'. One big man for dis group na Boumédiène long-time foreign minister, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, wey serve as Algeria president from 1999 go 2019. At first, dem dey see am as person wey fit be weak leader, e no get any strong people wey dey support am apart from army, plus dem no sabi how far him fit control de officer come. Him dey hold de leadership for Algeria well well till him go 1978. After de coup wey happen for 1967, no real challenge come from insyde de government. After dis coup, him dey insist say make dem share de ruling.<ref>{{cite journal |last=John |first=Peter St. |year=1968 |title=Independent Algeria from Ben Bella to Boumédienne: I. The Counter-Revolution and Its Consequences |journal=The World Today |publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs |volume=24 |issue=7 |pages=290–296 |jstor=40394141}}</ref> [[File:Houari-Boumediene-standing-in-a-row-with-the-other-politicians-391852507172.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Houari-Boumediene-standing-in-a-row-with-the-other-politicians-391852507172.jpg|left|thumb|Houari Boumediene standing for row insyde with de other politicians, 1965.]] == Domestic policy == [[File:Algerian_Economy_1972.ogv|thumb|1972 newsreel about Algeria under Boumédiène]] For economic matter, Boumédiène no follow Ben Bella dey focus on rural Algeria plus all those socialist business wey dem dey try. E instead choose to dey plan proper industrialization wey go involve government. For dat time, Algeria no get any serious production, but for 1971, Boumédiène take over de oil industry, den money start dey flow for government (plus French government come dey vex well well). E use di oil plus gas money—especially wen de oil price come burst for 1973—to build heavy industry, dey hope say Algeria go turn de industrial heart of Maghreb. De years wey e rule, e show say na steady economic growth dey, but after e die, for de 80s, oil price drop plus how de government industries dey slack come make dem change policy to allow small-small economic freedom. Boumédiène put Arab socialism as di main way wey dem dey run government, and den say Islam be di official religion.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Salih|first=M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dY-_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Interpreting Islamic Political Parties|date=2009-09-28|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-10077-0|pages=|language=en|access-date=2022-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223113621/https://books.google.com/books?id=dY-_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|archive-date=2023-02-23|url-status=live}}</ref> E be strong supporter of Arabization and e dey push am pass Ben Bella for Arabizing Algeria, especially from 1970 go 1977, plus e talk say 1971 na year of Arabization.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ennaji|first=Moha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRJgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Multiculturalism and Democracy in North Africa: Aftermath of the Arab Spring|date=2014-04-16|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-81362-0|language=en|access-date=2022-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406154210/https://books.google.com/books?id=MRJgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|archive-date=2023-04-06|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1970s, as government industry dey grow plus dem nationalize oil, Boumédiène come declare some socialist revolutions, plus him make ein leftist of him government strong. One wahala wey come from dis na de way dem fit join some old members of Algerian Communist Party (dem call am PAGS) wey dey hide before, as dem come enter government, e sure say dem fit get small intellectual influence, but dem no legalize demma party officially. Algeria don remain one-party state under FLN. Politics dey stable, but anytime dem try challenge government, dem go cut am quick. Boumédiène, as chairman of de Revolutionary Command Council, dey rule with order. For de 1970s, dem small-small bring back constitutional rule plus civilian political systems come back. Dem try revive FLN activities, plus government bodies start come back, from local assemblies dey go up to national level, wey parliament election dey happen. De whole matter finish with constitution wey dem adopt for 1976 wey really set Algeria’s political structure. Before Dat, pipo dey talk plenty about de government plan, but de constitution come take shape insyde one controll referendum wey no get big changes. Dem come bring back president office. As FLN leader, Boumédiène be de only person for president, plus dem confirm am for December referendum. [[File:BENZAZA_BOUMEDIENE_CASTRO.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BENZAZA_BOUMEDIENE_CASTRO.jpg|thumb|207x207px|Boumediene with Cuban communist leader Fidel Castro in 1972.]] Wen e die that year, de way Algeria dey run be all about FLN design. Dem structure no change much till late 1980s wen dem bring political pluralism come plus FLN lose him as de main party. (Many basic tings wey dey insyde dis system plus Boumédiène era constitution still dey.) But during Boumédiène time, military still dey control politics for de country, plus dem influence dey enter civilian places like FLN, parliament plus government, wey dey disturb how politics suppose dey go. Serious fight for money or power between military plus political people dey continue, but na Boumédiène strong presence wey dey hold everywhere down, make e no scatter government. Under Boumédiène ein government, Algeria grow well for economy plus society level. From 1962 to 1982, de population jump from 10 million to 20 million people. Before independence, most people dey village, but by den about 45% of dem don move go town. Every year, the money each person dey get ' wey no pass 2,000 francs for 1962 climb go over 11,000 francs after 20 years. School enrolment too go up, from just 10% during French time to between 75 plus 95% based on de area. But still, Boumédiène focus plenty on factory plus industrial tings, so dem no pay attention to farming like that.<ref>L'Algérie, Claudine Rulleau and Paul Balta, 2000</ref> == Foreign policy == Boumédiène no dey follow anyone side, he dey maintain good vibe with both communist guys plus capitalist nations, plus e dey push for how third-world fit come together. For UN, e talk say make all countries join as equal, make dem no dey treat ex-colonial nations anyhow, plus e want make dem change wetin dey happen with political plus trade matter like socialist way. Him wan build strong third world bloc through Non-Aligned Movement, where e dey shine well well. E dey support freedom fighters, justice plus equality seekers without any condition. E dey help logistics for anti-colonial movement plus other militant groups for Africa plus Arab world, like PLO, ANC, SWAPO den other countries. Algeria no dey support Israel at all, dem dey stand gidigba for Palestinians matter. For early 1970s, Boumédiène don talk am well: 'We dey with Palestinians, whether dem dey suffer or dem dey cause suffering'.<ref name="Linah Alsaafin 2021 l251">{{cite web|last=Linah Alsaafin|first=Ramy Allahoum|date=20 Dec 2021|title=What is behind Algeria and Palestine's footballing love affair?|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/20/algeria-palestine-football-arab-cup-2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123165350/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/20/algeria-palestine-football-arab-cup-2021|archive-date=23 November 2023|access-date=23 Nov 2023|website=Al Jazeera}}</ref> Algeria come add more fire to Arab coalition with air force wey go face Israel for Six-Day War for 1967, plus dem send armor brigade with 150 tanks go Yom Kippur War for 1973, where Algerian jets join Egypt plus Iraq guys for attack. Dem even drop $200 million for Soviet Union to help buy arms for Egypt and Syria.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shazly|first=Saad|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54538606|title=The crossing of the Suez|date=2003|publisher=American Mideast Research|isbn=0-9604562-0-1|edition=Revised|location=San Francisco|pages=278|oclc=54538606|access-date=2023-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521144656/https://search.worldcat.org/title/54538606|archive-date=2024-05-21|url-status=live}}</ref> As US dey support Israel during Six-Day War, Algeria cut dem diplomatic link with USA. Dem join for 1973 oil embargo after US back Israel for Yom Kippur War.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Assessment|first=United States Congress Office of Technology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qiEdAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA71|title=Transportation of Liquefied Natural Gas|date=1977|publisher=Congress, Office of Technology Assessment|language=en|access-date=2022-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404191417/https://books.google.com/books?id=qiEdAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA71|archive-date=2023-04-04|url-status=live}}</ref> Wen Egypt gree normalize dem relationship with Israel, Algeria plus some other Arab countries no gree , dem jam Anwar Sadat den cut link with Egypt for 1977.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Howe|first=Marvine|date=1977-12-06|title=Hard-Line Arab Bloc Is Formed at Tripoli|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/06/archives/hardline-arab-bloc-is-formed-at-tripoli-apparently-at-syrias-behest.html|access-date=2020-09-15|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2020-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919165352/https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/06/archives/hardline-arab-bloc-is-formed-at-tripoli-apparently-at-syrias-behest.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Algeria buy plenty weapon from de Soviet Union. Big event wey happen for de region na de 1975 promise wey e make to support Western Sahara people make dem fit determine dem own destiny. E allow Sahrawi refugees plus Polisario Front come stay for Algeria after Morocco plus Mauritania try take de place. Dis matter spoil de chance to fix things with Morocco, wey don dey bad since de 1963 Sand War, even dem get small chance to dey cool down wen e first come power. De serious rivalry wey dey happen between Morocco plus Algeria, plus de Western Sahara wahala wey no resolve yet don define Algeria foreign policy , since den plus e still dey like dat today.<gallery widths="200" heights="200"> File:Nasser,_Aref,_Boumieddin,_Atassi,_Azhari.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nasser,_Aref,_Boumieddin,_Atassi,_Azhari.jpg|Arab heads of state insyd Cairo to discuss previous talks plus Soviet leaders. From left to right: Iraqi president Abdul Rahman Arif, Boumediene, Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], Syrian president Nureddin al-Atassi den Sudanese president Ismail al-Azhari, July 1967 File:Houari_Boumediene.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Houari_Boumediene.jpg|Boumédiène insyd 1972 File:1975_Algiers_Agreement.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1975_Algiers_Agreement.jpg|Na dem sign de 1975 Algiers Agreement by (left to right) de Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Boumédiène, den de Iraqi vice-president Saddam Hussein File:Gaddafi-Boumedienne-Assad-1977-Tripolis.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gaddafi-Boumedienne-Assad-1977-Tripolis.jpg|alt=|Libyan Leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Boumediene den Syrian President Hafez al-Assad insyd Tripoli, 1977 </gallery> == Ein Death plus funeral == For 1978, dis guy dey show face small-small. Him dey coma for 39 days, den him die for Algiers from some rare blood wahala wey dem dey call Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, after dem try treat am for Moscow but e no work. People dey talk say them fit don assassinate am or poison am sometimes for Algerian politics, especially after two other people wey join 1975 Algiers Agreement — de Shah (wey die 1980) plus him Minister Asadollah Alam (wey die 1978) — too die from cancer around de same time. Boumédiène death leave big gap for power for Algeria wey no easy to fill; some military guys gather den dem agree say make dem bypass de left plus right contenders, den maintain de top military officer, Colonel Chadli Bendjedid, as de compromise choice.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=New Leader|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=1979-02-12|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920107,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506091059/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920107,00.html|archive-date=2008-05-06}}</ref> Boumédiène funeral happen for Algiers on 29 December 1978. Two million people gather, dem break police barrier plus block road.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ALGERIA: ABOUT ONE MILLION MOURNERS DISRUPT FUNERAL OF LATE PRESIDENT HOUARI BOUMEDIENNE.|url=https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228134836/https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/|archive-date=2023-02-28|access-date=2023-03-28|website=British Pathé|language=en-GB}}</ref> De Algeria government promise say dem go continue him socialist revolution plus declare 40 days official mourning. Even though dem get wahala over Camp David Accords, Egyptian president Anwar Sadat still pay respect to Boumédiène, say him hear de news of him death "with sorrow plus sadness" so em send delegation come ein funeral.<ref name=":02" /> PLO leader Yasser Arafat join de funeral with him second for command for Fatah, Abu Iyad wey don build close relationship with Boumédiène.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=Times|first=James M. Markham Special to The New York|date=1978-12-29|title=Algerians Mourn at Boumediene's Bier|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/29/archives/algerians-mourn-at-boumedienes-bier-arafat-and-alde-attend-muhammad.html|access-date=2023-03-28|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2023-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328120921/https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/29/archives/algerians-mourn-at-boumedienes-bier-arafat-and-alde-attend-muhammad.html|url-status=live}}</ref> US President Jimmy Carter talk say he dey feel am well well, plus e mention say Boumédiène na person wey play correct role for Algeria fight for independence. Him passion for ein work plus wetin e do as international leader everybody sabi am. But na de way wey e try establish plus boost independent, self-sufficient Algeria go make people remember am pass.<ref name=":02" /> Plenty Delegates from US show face, even Muhammad Ali sef show face.<ref name=":12">{{Cite news|last=Times|first=James M. Markham Special to The New York|date=1978-12-29|title=Algerians Mourn at Boumediene's Bier|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/29/archives/algerians-mourn-at-boumedienes-bier-arafat-and-alde-attend-muhammad.html|access-date=2023-03-28|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2023-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328120921/https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/29/archives/algerians-mourn-at-boumedienes-bier-arafat-and-alde-attend-muhammad.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Soviet press dey hail Boumédiène as 'big friend of Soviet Union', plus talk say e make big contributions to Algeria social and economic move.<ref name=":02" /> ==Awards den honors== *Algeria: **[[File:National_Order_of_Merit_-_Athir_v.1_(Algeria)_-_ribbon_bar.gif|70px]] National Order of Merit *Cuba: **[[File:Ribbon jose marti.png|70px]] Order of José Martí (1974)<ref>{{cite book|first=Ronald H.|last=Chilcote|title= Cuba, 1953-1978: A Bibliographic Guide to the Literature|publisher=Kraus International Publications|date=1986|isbn=9780527168247|language=|pages=910}}</ref> *Morocco: **[[File:Ordre_de_l'Ouissam_Alaouite_GC_ribbon_(Maroc).svg|70px]] Grand Cordon of de Order of Ouissam Alaouite<ref>{{cite web|url=https://assafir24.ma/100627/|title=لمَّا اعترف "هواري بومدين" بفضل المغرب في انتصار الجزائر على الاستعمار|lang=ar|newspaper=assafir24.ma|date=2020|access-date=2024-03-25|archive-date=2024-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325111613/https://assafir24.ma/100627/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Check am too == *Houari Boumediene Airport, an airport near Algiers dem name after am. *Houari Boumédienne District, a district insyd ein native Guelma Province dem name after am. *El Mouradia Palace == References == <references /> == General bibliography == * Balta, Paul, and Claudine Roulleau, ''La Stratégie de Boumédiène'', Simbad, 1978 * Francos, Ania, and Jean-Pierre Séréni, ''Un Algérien nommé Boumédiène'', Stock, coll. Les Grands Leaders, 1976 * Minces, Juliette, ''L'Algérie de Boumediène'', Presses de la Cité, 1978 == External links == [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Boumediene, Houari}} [[Category:1932 births]] [[Category:1978 deaths]] [[Category:Algerian nationalists]] [[Category:Algerian military personnel]] [[Category:Algerian Muslims]] [[Category:Algerian revolutionaries]] [[Category:Vice presidents of Algeria]] [[Category:Deaths from blood cancer]] [[Category:Members of the National Liberation Front (Algeria)]] [[Category:National Liberation Front (Algeria) politicians]] [[Category:Muslim socialists]] [[Category:People from Guelma Province]] [[Category:People from Guelma]] [[Category:Presidents of Algeria]] [[Category:Defense ministers of Algeria]] [[Category:Secretaries-general of the Non-Aligned Movement]] [[Category:Leaders who took power by coup]] [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [[Category:Directors of intelligence agencies]] [[Category:Algerian Arab nationalists]] 5s18w018dk4tzfmt7hibha1m01nny4t 67160 67159 2025-06-29T18:56:02Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67160 wikitext text/x-wiki {{ Databox}} '''Houari Boumédiène''' ((Arabic: هواري بومدين, <small>romanized:</small> ''Hawwārī Būmadyan''; born '''Mohammed ben Brahim Boukharouba'''; 23 August 1932 – 27 December 1978) na he be [[Algeria]]n military officer plus politician wey be de second head of state of independent Algeria from 1965 until ein death for 1978. Na he serve as Chairman of de Revolutionary Council of Algeria from 19 June 1965 upto 12 December 1976 den after dat he serve as president of Algeria til he die. Na dem born am for Guelma, Mohammed ben Brahmin Boukharouba get ein education at de Islamic Institute for Constantine. For 1955, he join de National Liberation Front (FLN) wey he adopt de ''nom de guerre'' Houari Boumediene. By 1960, he rise through de organization ein ranks to become de commander of de FLN's military wing. After de FLN's victory over de French for de Algerian War of Independence for 1962, Boumediene become de Minister of Defense for Algeria's new government. However, for June 1965, him overthrow President Ben Bella insyd bloodless coup before he proceed to cancel de Algeria's parliament along with its constitution plus ultimately him become de country en acting head of state. For de 1970s, Boumediene initiate a gradual restoration of parliamentarism plus civil institutions for Algeria. Dis process do end with de adoption of de new constitution for 1976. Dem reinstate de presidency den Boumediene come out as de sole candidate for an election later dat year, winning with 99.46 per cent of de votes. Subsequently, Him pursue Arab socialist and Pan-Arabist policies. Him no dey like Israel at all, so him help anti-colonial movements den freedom fighters for de Arab world plus Africa with support plus logistics. From early 1978, Boumediene no dey show for public like before. Him die on December 27, 1978, after dem try treat am for one rare blood cancer wey no work, dem dey call am Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia. Ein funeral pull crowd, as two million people come mourn am.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news|title=Algerians Mourn Death of Boumediene|language=en-US|newspaper=Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1978/12/28/algerians-mourn-death-of-boumediene/8dde9acb-74af-4b47-a862-08f5569062ae/|access-date=2023-03-28|issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Na Chadli Bendjedid take over as president after am. == Early life plus War of Independence == [[File:The_house_where_the_late_Algerian_President_Houari_Boumediene_was_born_(Guelma_peovince).jpg|left|thumb|De house where dem born Boumediene for Douar Beni Aadi]] [[File:Houari_Boumediène_-_War_of_Independence.jpg|left|thumb|Boumediène during de Algerian War of Independence]] Information for Boumédiène ein early life no really dey like dat. De place wey dem bon am dey show as Guelma, Clauzel village wey dey near Guelma, or Héliopolis, plus ein date of birth be say na 16 August 1925, 23 August 1927, or for plenty source 1932.<ref name="Leonard2013">{{Cite book|last=Thomas M. Leonard|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=We-OAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA191|title=Encyclopedia of the Developing World|date=18 October 2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-20515-7|page=191}}</ref> Ein papa talk say him date of birth na 23 August 1932 for interview insyd1965 Ein birth name be Mohammed ben Brahim Boukherouba plus eim papa be broke wheat farmer, Arab man wey be strict Muslim, plus e no sabi French at all.<ref name="Horne2012">{{Cite book|last=Alistair Horne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4-UHiZTlpMC&pg=PR29|title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962|date=9 August 2012|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-1-4472-3343-5|page=29}}</ref><ref name="EvansPhillips2007">{{Cite book|last=Martin Evans|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6J5WNbL9e4C&pg=PA65|title=Algeria: Anger of the Dispossessed|last2=John Phillips|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-300-10881-1|page=65}}</ref> Per de Encyclopaedia of Islam, na ein family dey speak Arabic plus e get Berber roots. E go school for Quranic school for Guelma till e reach 14years, den e move go Arabic secondary school for Constantine.<ref name="Smith2">{{cite news|last1=Smith|first1=J. Y.|title=Houari Boumediene: Ideologue and Pragmatist|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1978/12/28/houari-boumediene-ideologue-and-pragmatist/9a4d7b8c-b241-4a9f-a691-94278062ce68/|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=28 December 1978|access-date=22 June 2021|archive-date=8 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108184653/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1978/12/28/houari-boumediene-ideologue-and-pragmatist/9a4d7b8c-b241-4a9f-a691-94278062ce68/|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1952, wen France de recruit Algerian pipo to fight for de Indochina War, Boumédiène don go Cairo, where him de study for de [[Al-Azhar University]]. Na e be dere him first meet [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]. Ein join National Liberation Front (FLN) for de time of de Algerian War of Independence for 1955, take Houari Boumédiène as him war name (from Sidi Boumediène, wey be de patron saint of Tlemcen city for western Algeria, where he dey serve as officer during de war, plus Sidi El Houari, wey be de patron saint for nearby Oran). E rise to colonel rank, den highest rank for de FLN forces, plus from 1960, e become de chief of staff for ALN, de military side of FLN. Na him don marry Anissa al-Mansali dat time. == After independence == [[File:Ben_bella_and_Boumediene.jpg|left|thumb|230x230px|Boumediene with Ahmed Ben Bella for 1962.]] For 1962, after dem do referendum, Algeria take declare im independence, plus French government no get wahala with dat one. Boumédiène plus Ahmed Ben Bella come push out de provisional government wey Benyoucef Benkhedda dey run with support from di ALN for 1962. Boumédiène be di big man for military side insyde de government, plus him be defence minister wey de Algerian president Ahmed Ben Bella put am, cause him help am waka come power like chief of staff. Later, Boumédiène come be Vice President of Algeria for September 1963.<ref name="algeriancabinets">{{Cite web|last=Ottaway|first=Professor Marina|last2=Ottaway|first2=David|last3=Ottaway|first3=Marina|date=December 15, 1970|title=Algeria: The Politics of a Socialist Revolution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp8IfVxOcEQC&pg=PA294|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521144545/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bp8IfVxOcEQC&pg=PA294#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=May 21, 2024|access-date=December 15, 2019|publisher=University of California Press|via=Google Books}}</ref> E start dey trust Ben Bella less den less sake of how e dey rule anyhow plus e too strict with ideology. So for June 1965, Boumédiène take power by force but em no shed any blood. Dem don wipe away de constitution plus political system for de country, plus him dey rule through him own Revolutionary Council wey him military paddy dem dey support am. Plenty of dem be him guys from de war times, wen e dey chill for de Moroccan border town Oujda, wey make analysts dey talk say 'Oujda Group'. One big man for dis group na Boumédiène long-time foreign minister, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, wey serve as Algeria president from 1999 go 2019. At first, dem dey see am as person wey fit be weak leader, e no get any strong people wey dey support am apart from army, plus dem no sabi how far him fit control de officer come. Him dey hold de leadership for Algeria well well till him go 1978. After de coup wey happen for 1967, no real challenge come from insyde de government. After dis coup, him dey insist say make dem share de ruling.<ref>{{cite journal |last=John |first=Peter St. |year=1968 |title=Independent Algeria from Ben Bella to Boumédienne: I. The Counter-Revolution and Its Consequences |journal=The World Today |publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs |volume=24 |issue=7 |pages=290–296 |jstor=40394141}}</ref> [[File:Houari-Boumediene-standing-in-a-row-with-the-other-politicians-391852507172.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Houari-Boumediene-standing-in-a-row-with-the-other-politicians-391852507172.jpg|left|thumb|Houari Boumediene standing for row insyde with de other politicians, 1965.]] == Domestic policy == [[File:Algerian_Economy_1972.ogv|thumb|1972 newsreel about Algeria under Boumédiène]] For economic matter, Boumédiène no follow Ben Bella dey focus on rural Algeria plus all those socialist business wey dem dey try. E instead choose to dey plan proper industrialization wey go involve government. For dat time, Algeria no get any serious production, but for 1971, Boumédiène take over de oil industry, den money start dey flow for government (plus French government come dey vex well well). E use di oil plus gas money—especially wen de oil price come burst for 1973—to build heavy industry, dey hope say Algeria go turn de industrial heart of Maghreb. De years wey e rule, e show say na steady economic growth dey, but after e die, for de 80s, oil price drop plus how de government industries dey slack come make dem change policy to allow small-small economic freedom. Boumédiène put Arab socialism as di main way wey dem dey run government, and den say Islam be di official religion.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Salih|first=M.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dY-_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|title=Interpreting Islamic Political Parties|date=2009-09-28|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-230-10077-0|pages=|language=en|access-date=2022-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223113621/https://books.google.com/books?id=dY-_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|archive-date=2023-02-23|url-status=live}}</ref> E be strong supporter of Arabization and e dey push am pass Ben Bella for Arabizing Algeria, especially from 1970 go 1977, plus e talk say 1971 na year of Arabization.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ennaji|first=Moha|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MRJgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Multiculturalism and Democracy in North Africa: Aftermath of the Arab Spring|date=2014-04-16|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-81362-0|language=en|access-date=2022-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406154210/https://books.google.com/books?id=MRJgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|archive-date=2023-04-06|url-status=live}}</ref> For 1970s, as government industry dey grow plus dem nationalize oil, Boumédiène come declare some socialist revolutions, plus him make ein leftist of him government strong. One wahala wey come from dis na de way dem fit join some old members of Algerian Communist Party (dem call am PAGS) wey dey hide before, as dem come enter government, e sure say dem fit get small intellectual influence, but dem no legalize demma party officially. Algeria don remain one-party state under FLN. Politics dey stable, but anytime dem try challenge government, dem go cut am quick. Boumédiène, as chairman of de Revolutionary Command Council, dey rule with order. For de 1970s, dem small-small bring back constitutional rule plus civilian political systems come back. Dem try revive FLN activities, plus government bodies start come back, from local assemblies dey go up to national level, wey parliament election dey happen. De whole matter finish with constitution wey dem adopt for 1976 wey really set Algeria’s political structure. Before Dat, pipo dey talk plenty about de government plan, but de constitution come take shape insyde one controll referendum wey no get big changes. Dem come bring back president office. As FLN leader, Boumédiène be de only person for president, plus dem confirm am for December referendum. [[File:BENZAZA_BOUMEDIENE_CASTRO.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BENZAZA_BOUMEDIENE_CASTRO.jpg|thumb|207x207px|Boumediene with Cuban communist leader Fidel Castro in 1972.]] Wen e die that year, de way Algeria dey run be all about FLN design. Dem structure no change much till late 1980s wen dem bring political pluralism come plus FLN lose him as de main party. (Many basic tings wey dey insyde dis system plus Boumédiène era constitution still dey.) But during Boumédiène time, military still dey control politics for de country, plus dem influence dey enter civilian places like FLN, parliament plus government, wey dey disturb how politics suppose dey go. Serious fight for money or power between military plus political people dey continue, but na Boumédiène strong presence wey dey hold everywhere down, make e no scatter government. Under Boumédiène ein government, Algeria grow well for economy plus society level. From 1962 to 1982, de population jump from 10 million to 20 million people. Before independence, most people dey village, but by den about 45% of dem don move go town. Every year, the money each person dey get ' wey no pass 2,000 francs for 1962 climb go over 11,000 francs after 20 years. School enrolment too go up, from just 10% during French time to between 75 plus 95% based on de area. But still, Boumédiène focus plenty on factory plus industrial tings, so dem no pay attention to farming like that.<ref>L'Algérie, Claudine Rulleau and Paul Balta, 2000</ref> == Foreign policy == Boumédiène no dey follow anyone side, he dey maintain good vibe with both communist guys plus capitalist nations, plus e dey push for how third-world fit come together. For UN, e talk say make all countries join as equal, make dem no dey treat ex-colonial nations anyhow, plus e want make dem change wetin dey happen with political plus trade matter like socialist way. Him wan build strong third world bloc through Non-Aligned Movement, where e dey shine well well. E dey support freedom fighters, justice plus equality seekers without any condition. E dey help logistics for anti-colonial movement plus other militant groups for Africa plus Arab world, like PLO, ANC, SWAPO den other countries. Algeria no dey support Israel at all, dem dey stand gidigba for Palestinians matter. For early 1970s, Boumédiène don talk am well: 'We dey with Palestinians, whether dem dey suffer or dem dey cause suffering'.<ref name="Linah Alsaafin 2021 l251">{{cite web|last=Linah Alsaafin|first=Ramy Allahoum|date=20 Dec 2021|title=What is behind Algeria and Palestine's footballing love affair?|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/20/algeria-palestine-football-arab-cup-2021|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231123165350/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/12/20/algeria-palestine-football-arab-cup-2021|archive-date=23 November 2023|access-date=23 Nov 2023|website=Al Jazeera}}</ref> Algeria come add more fire to Arab coalition with air force wey go face Israel for Six-Day War for 1967, plus dem send armor brigade with 150 tanks go Yom Kippur War for 1973, where Algerian jets join Egypt plus Iraq guys for attack. Dem even drop $200 million for Soviet Union to help buy arms for Egypt and Syria.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Shazly|first=Saad|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/54538606|title=The crossing of the Suez|date=2003|publisher=American Mideast Research|isbn=0-9604562-0-1|edition=Revised|location=San Francisco|pages=278|oclc=54538606|access-date=2023-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240521144656/https://search.worldcat.org/title/54538606|archive-date=2024-05-21|url-status=live}}</ref> As US dey support Israel during Six-Day War, Algeria cut dem diplomatic link with USA. Dem join for 1973 oil embargo after US back Israel for Yom Kippur War.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Assessment|first=United States Congress Office of Technology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qiEdAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA71|title=Transportation of Liquefied Natural Gas|date=1977|publisher=Congress, Office of Technology Assessment|language=en|access-date=2022-11-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404191417/https://books.google.com/books?id=qiEdAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA71|archive-date=2023-04-04|url-status=live}}</ref> Wen Egypt gree normalize dem relationship with Israel, Algeria plus some other Arab countries no gree , dem jam Anwar Sadat den cut link with Egypt for 1977.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Howe|first=Marvine|date=1977-12-06|title=Hard-Line Arab Bloc Is Formed at Tripoli|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/06/archives/hardline-arab-bloc-is-formed-at-tripoli-apparently-at-syrias-behest.html|access-date=2020-09-15|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2020-09-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919165352/https://www.nytimes.com/1977/12/06/archives/hardline-arab-bloc-is-formed-at-tripoli-apparently-at-syrias-behest.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Algeria buy plenty weapon from de Soviet Union. Big event wey happen for de region na de 1975 promise wey e make to support Western Sahara people make dem fit determine dem own destiny. E allow Sahrawi refugees plus Polisario Front come stay for Algeria after Morocco plus Mauritania try take de place. Dis matter spoil de chance to fix things with Morocco, wey don dey bad since de 1963 Sand War, even dem get small chance to dey cool down wen e first come power. De serious rivalry wey dey happen between Morocco plus Algeria, plus de Western Sahara wahala wey no resolve yet don define Algeria foreign policy , since den plus e still dey like dat today.<gallery widths="200" heights="200"> File:Nasser,_Aref,_Boumieddin,_Atassi,_Azhari.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nasser,_Aref,_Boumieddin,_Atassi,_Azhari.jpg|Arab heads of state insyd Cairo to discuss previous talks plus Soviet leaders. From left to right: Iraqi president Abdul Rahman Arif, Boumediene, Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], Syrian president Nureddin al-Atassi den Sudanese president Ismail al-Azhari, July 1967 File:Houari_Boumediene.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Houari_Boumediene.jpg|Boumédiène insyd 1972 File:1975_Algiers_Agreement.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1975_Algiers_Agreement.jpg|Na dem sign de 1975 Algiers Agreement by (left to right) de Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Boumédiène, den de Iraqi vice-president Saddam Hussein File:Gaddafi-Boumedienne-Assad-1977-Tripolis.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gaddafi-Boumedienne-Assad-1977-Tripolis.jpg|alt=|Libyan Leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], Boumediene den Syrian President Hafez al-Assad insyd Tripoli, 1977 </gallery> == Ein Death plus funeral == For 1978, dis guy dey show face small-small. Him dey coma for 39 days, den him die for Algiers from some rare blood wahala wey dem dey call Waldenström's macroglobulinemia, after dem try treat am for Moscow but e no work. People dey talk say them fit don assassinate am or poison am sometimes for Algerian politics, especially after two other people wey join 1975 Algiers Agreement — de Shah (wey die 1980) plus him Minister Asadollah Alam (wey die 1978) — too die from cancer around de same time. Boumédiène death leave big gap for power for Algeria wey no easy to fill; some military guys gather den dem agree say make dem bypass de left plus right contenders, den maintain de top military officer, Colonel Chadli Bendjedid, as de compromise choice.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=New Leader|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=1979-02-12|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920107,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080506091059/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920107,00.html|archive-date=2008-05-06}}</ref> Boumédiène funeral happen for Algiers on 29 December 1978. Two million people gather, dem break police barrier plus block road.<ref>{{Cite web|title=ALGERIA: ABOUT ONE MILLION MOURNERS DISRUPT FUNERAL OF LATE PRESIDENT HOUARI BOUMEDIENNE.|url=https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228134836/https://www.britishpathe.com/asset/|archive-date=2023-02-28|access-date=2023-03-28|website=British Pathé|language=en-GB}}</ref> De Algeria government promise say dem go continue him socialist revolution plus declare 40 days official mourning. Even though dem get wahala over Camp David Accords, Egyptian president Anwar Sadat still pay respect to Boumédiène, say him hear de news of him death "with sorrow plus sadness" so em send delegation come ein funeral.<ref name=":02" /> PLO leader Yasser Arafat join de funeral with him second for command for Fatah, Abu Iyad wey don build close relationship with Boumédiène.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|last=Times|first=James M. Markham Special to The New York|date=1978-12-29|title=Algerians Mourn at Boumediene's Bier|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/29/archives/algerians-mourn-at-boumedienes-bier-arafat-and-alde-attend-muhammad.html|access-date=2023-03-28|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2023-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328120921/https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/29/archives/algerians-mourn-at-boumedienes-bier-arafat-and-alde-attend-muhammad.html|url-status=live}}</ref> US President Jimmy Carter talk say he dey feel am well well, plus e mention say Boumédiène na person wey play correct role for Algeria fight for independence. Him passion for ein work plus wetin e do as international leader everybody sabi am. But na de way wey e try establish plus boost independent, self-sufficient Algeria go make people remember am pass.<ref name=":02" /> Plenty Delegates from US show face, even Muhammad Ali sef show face.<ref name=":12">{{Cite news|last=Times|first=James M. Markham Special to The New York|date=1978-12-29|title=Algerians Mourn at Boumediene's Bier|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/29/archives/algerians-mourn-at-boumedienes-bier-arafat-and-alde-attend-muhammad.html|access-date=2023-03-28|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2023-03-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328120921/https://www.nytimes.com/1978/12/29/archives/algerians-mourn-at-boumedienes-bier-arafat-and-alde-attend-muhammad.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Soviet press dey hail Boumédiène as 'big friend of Soviet Union', plus talk say e make big contributions to Algeria social and economic move.<ref name=":02" /> ==Awards den honors== *Algeria: **[[File:National_Order_of_Merit_-_Athir_v.1_(Algeria)_-_ribbon_bar.gif|70px]] National Order of Merit *Cuba: **[[File:Ribbon jose marti.png|70px]] Order of José Martí (1974)<ref>{{cite book|first=Ronald H.|last=Chilcote|title= Cuba, 1953-1978: A Bibliographic Guide to the Literature|publisher=Kraus International Publications|date=1986|isbn=9780527168247|language=|pages=910}}</ref> *Morocco: **[[File:Ordre_de_l'Ouissam_Alaouite_GC_ribbon_(Maroc).svg|70px]] Grand Cordon of de Order of Ouissam Alaouite<ref>{{cite web|url=https://assafir24.ma/100627/|title=لمَّا اعترف "هواري بومدين" بفضل المغرب في انتصار الجزائر على الاستعمار|lang=ar|newspaper=assafir24.ma|date=2020|access-date=2024-03-25|archive-date=2024-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240325111613/https://assafir24.ma/100627/|url-status=live}}</ref> == Check am too == *Houari Boumediene Airport, an airport near Algiers dem name after am. *Houari Boumédienne District, a district insyd ein native Guelma Province dem name after am. *El Mouradia Palace == References == <references /> == General bibliography == * Balta, Paul, and Claudine Roulleau, ''La Stratégie de Boumédiène'', Simbad, 1978 * Francos, Ania, and Jean-Pierre Séréni, ''Un Algérien nommé Boumédiène'', Stock, coll. Les Grands Leaders, 1976 * Minces, Juliette, ''L'Algérie de Boumediène'', Presses de la Cité, 1978 == External links == {{sister project links||d=Q310855|c=Category:Houari Boumediene|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no}} * (In French) [http://www.elwatan.com/Le-regne-de-Houari-Boumediene Le règne de Houari Boumediène], ''El Watan'', 27 décembre 2008 * (In French) [http://www.dailymotion.com/avectoisegolene/video/xv3dy_houari-boumediene Video clip of a speech by Houari Boumédiène] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Boumediene, Houari}} [[Category:1932 births]] [[Category:1978 deaths]] [[Category:Algerian people]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Algerian nationalists]] [[Category:Algerian military personnel]] [[Category:Algerian Muslims]] [[Category:Algerian revolutionaries]] [[Category:Vice presidents of Algeria]] [[Category:Deaths from blood cancer]] [[Category:Members of de National Liberation Front (Algeria)]] [[Category:National Liberation Front (Algeria) politicians]] [[Category:Muslim socialists]] [[Category:People wey komot Guelma Province]] [[Category:People wey komot Guelma]] [[Category:Presidents of Algeria]] [[Category:Defense ministers of Algeria]] [[Category:Secretaries-general of de Non-Aligned Movement]] [[Category:Leaders wey take power by coup]] [[Category:Articles wey dey contain video clips]] [[Category:Directors of intelligence agencies]] [[Category:Algerian Arab nationalists]] hhieknug5pst4pop0aij5s657ugohx9 0 17522 67133 64313 2025-06-29T12:02:26Z DaSupremo 9 Make sum corrections 67133 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Chris Hani''' (28 June 1942 - 10 April 1993;<ref name="sacp_Chri">{{Cite web|title=My Life, An autobiography written in 1991|author=Chris Hani|work=SA Communist Party|date=1991|access-date=3 November 2016|url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225112546/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-date=25 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> born '''Martin Thembisile Hani''') na he be a South African military commander, politician den revolutionary wey serve as de leader of de South African Communist Party (SACP) den chief of staff of uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK), de armed wing of de African National Congress (ANC). Na he be a fierce opponent of de apartheid government, wey na he be assassinated by Janusz Waluś, a Polish immigrant den sympathiser of de Conservative opposition on 10 April 1993, during de unrest wey dey precede de transition to democracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv03370/05lv03422.htm|title=The Death of Chris Hani: An African Misadventure - The O'Malley Archives|website=omalley.nelsonmandela.org|access-date=2019-02-04}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == 3qwdbm5723d0pgkkahufpbqozh8m5gy 67212 67133 2025-06-29T21:10:16Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67212 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Chris Hani''' (28 June 1942 - 10 April 1993;<ref name="sacp_Chri">{{Cite web|title=My Life, An autobiography written in 1991|author=Chris Hani|work=SA Communist Party|date=1991|access-date=3 November 2016|url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225112546/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-date=25 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> born '''Martin Thembisile Hani''') na he be a South African military commander, politician den revolutionary wey serve as de leader of de South African Communist Party (SACP) den chief of staff of uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK), de armed wing of de African National Congress (ANC). Na he be a fierce opponent of de apartheid government, wey na he be assassinated by Janusz Waluś, a Polish immigrant den sympathiser of de Conservative opposition on 10 April 1993, during de unrest wey dey precede de transition to democracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv03370/05lv03422.htm|title=The Death of Chris Hani: An African Misadventure - The O'Malley Archives|website=omalley.nelsonmandela.org|access-date=2019-02-04}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hani, Chris}} [[Category:1942 births]] [[Category:1993 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century atheists]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:South African people]] [[Category:African politicians dem assassinate insyd de 1990s]] [[Category:African National Congress politicians]] [[Category:South African anti-apartheid activists]] [[Category:Politicians dem assassinate insyd 1993]] [[Category:South African activists dem assassinate]] [[Category:South African politicians dem assassinate]] [[Category:Deaths by firearm insyd South Africa]] [[Category:Former Roman Catholics]] [[Category:People wey komot Intsika Yethu Local Municipality]] [[Category:People dem murder insyd South Africa]] [[Category:People of de Rhodesian Bush War]] [[Category:Rhodes University alumni]] [[Category:South African atheists]] [[Category:South African Communist Party politicians]] [[Category:South African communists]] [[Category:South African expatriates insyd de Soviet Union]] [[Category:South African Marxists]] [[Category:South African revolutionaries]] [[Category:UMkhonto we Sizwe personnel]] [[Category:University of Fort Hare alumni]] [[Category:Xhosa people]] j7zj1vifrpp7nlul9i5odl523nazn1i 67218 67212 2025-06-29T21:27:18Z DaSupremo 9 /* Early life */ Improve article 67218 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Chris Hani''' (28 June 1942 - 10 April 1993;<ref name="sacp_Chri">{{Cite web|title=My Life, An autobiography written in 1991|author=Chris Hani|work=SA Communist Party|date=1991|access-date=3 November 2016|url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225112546/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-date=25 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> born '''Martin Thembisile Hani''') na he be a South African military commander, politician den revolutionary wey serve as de leader of de South African Communist Party (SACP) den chief of staff of uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK), de armed wing of de African National Congress (ANC). Na he be a fierce opponent of de apartheid government, wey na he be assassinated by Janusz Waluś, a Polish immigrant den sympathiser of de Conservative opposition on 10 April 1993, during de unrest wey dey precede de transition to democracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv03370/05lv03422.htm|title=The Death of Chris Hani: An African Misadventure - The O'Malley Archives|website=omalley.nelsonmandela.org|access-date=2019-02-04}}</ref> ==Early life== Na dem born Martin Thembisile Hani on 28 June 1942<ref name="sacp_Chri"/> insyd de Xhosa village insyd Cofimvaba, Transkei. Na ein poppie Gilbert Hani be a mine union worker den political activist wey lef de country to go into exile insyd 1962 wey na he return to South Africa insyd 1991. Na ein mommie Mary Hani be a simple person wey na she never attend school. Na he be de fifth of six kiddies. Na he attend Lovedale school insyd 1957, make he fini ein last two years. Na he twice fini two school grades insyd a single year. Wen Hani be 12 years old, after he hear ein poppie ein explanations about apartheid den de African National Congress (ANC), na he wish make he join de ANC buh na he be still too young make dem accept am.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Van Wyk|first=Chris|title=Chris Hani|publisher=Awareness publishing|year=2003|isbn=1919910131|location=South Africa|page=13}}</ref> Insyd Lovedale school, na Hani join de ANC Youth League wen na he be 15 years old, even though na dem no dey allow political activities for black schools under apartheid. Na he influence other students make dem join de ANC. Insyd an interview insyd 1993 plus Luli Callinicos, na Hani reveal say na he first be involved plus de Unity movement. Na he be influenced make he align plus de ANC secof de activism of de party wey dey concern mass struggles. Na he mention writers such as Govan Mbeki wey play a critical role insyd ein political conversion.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chris Hani interviewed by Luli Callinicos (Johannesburg), 23 and 31 March 1993 {{!}} South African History Online|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/chris-hani-interviewed-luli-callinicos-johannesburg-23-and-31-march-1993|access-date=2025-03-21|website=www.sahistory.org.za}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hani, Chris}} [[Category:1942 births]] [[Category:1993 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century atheists]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:South African people]] [[Category:African politicians dem assassinate insyd de 1990s]] [[Category:African National Congress politicians]] [[Category:South African anti-apartheid activists]] [[Category:Politicians dem assassinate insyd 1993]] [[Category:South African activists dem assassinate]] [[Category:South African politicians dem assassinate]] [[Category:Deaths by firearm insyd South Africa]] [[Category:Former Roman Catholics]] [[Category:People wey komot Intsika Yethu Local Municipality]] [[Category:People dem murder insyd South Africa]] [[Category:People of de Rhodesian Bush War]] [[Category:Rhodes University alumni]] [[Category:South African atheists]] [[Category:South African Communist Party politicians]] [[Category:South African communists]] [[Category:South African expatriates insyd de Soviet Union]] [[Category:South African Marxists]] [[Category:South African revolutionaries]] [[Category:UMkhonto we Sizwe personnel]] [[Category:University of Fort Hare alumni]] [[Category:Xhosa people]] fsjkw9eif1l7nmp5fn09eyv5e2bzbzt 67220 67218 2025-06-29T21:30:36Z DaSupremo 9 /* Early life */ Improve article 67220 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Chris Hani''' (28 June 1942 - 10 April 1993;<ref name="sacp_Chri">{{Cite web|title=My Life, An autobiography written in 1991|author=Chris Hani|work=SA Communist Party|date=1991|access-date=3 November 2016|url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225112546/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-date=25 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> born '''Martin Thembisile Hani''') na he be a South African military commander, politician den revolutionary wey serve as de leader of de South African Communist Party (SACP) den chief of staff of uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK), de armed wing of de African National Congress (ANC). Na he be a fierce opponent of de apartheid government, wey na he be assassinated by Janusz Waluś, a Polish immigrant den sympathiser of de Conservative opposition on 10 April 1993, during de unrest wey dey precede de transition to democracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv03370/05lv03422.htm|title=The Death of Chris Hani: An African Misadventure - The O'Malley Archives|website=omalley.nelsonmandela.org|access-date=2019-02-04}}</ref> ==Early life== Na dem born Martin Thembisile Hani on 28 June 1942<ref name="sacp_Chri"/> insyd de Xhosa village insyd Cofimvaba, Transkei. Na ein poppie Gilbert Hani be a mine union worker den political activist wey lef de country to go into exile insyd 1962 wey na he return to South Africa insyd 1991. Na ein mommie Mary Hani be a simple person wey na she never attend school. Na he be de fifth of six kiddies. Na he attend Lovedale school insyd 1957, make he fini ein last two years. Na he twice fini two school grades insyd a single year. Wen Hani be 12 years old, after he hear ein poppie ein explanations about apartheid den de African National Congress (ANC), na he wish make he join de ANC buh na he be still too young make dem accept am.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Van Wyk|first=Chris|title=Chris Hani|publisher=Awareness publishing|year=2003|isbn=1919910131|location=South Africa|page=13}}</ref> Insyd Lovedale school, na Hani join de ANC Youth League wen na he be 15 years old, even though na dem no dey allow political activities for black schools under apartheid. Na he influence other students make dem join de ANC. Insyd an interview insyd 1993 plus Luli Callinicos, na Hani reveal say na he first be involved plus de Unity movement. Na he be influenced make he align plus de ANC secof de activism of de party wey dey concern mass struggles. Na he mention writers such as Govan Mbeki wey play a critical role insyd ein political conversion.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chris Hani interviewed by Luli Callinicos (Johannesburg), 23 and 31 March 1993 {{!}} South African History Online|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/chris-hani-interviewed-luli-callinicos-johannesburg-23-and-31-march-1993|access-date=2025-03-21|website=www.sahistory.org.za}}</ref> Insyd 1959, at de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd Alice, Eastern Cape, na Hani study English, Latin den modern den classical literature. == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hani, Chris}} [[Category:1942 births]] [[Category:1993 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century atheists]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:South African people]] [[Category:African politicians dem assassinate insyd de 1990s]] [[Category:African National Congress politicians]] [[Category:South African anti-apartheid activists]] [[Category:Politicians dem assassinate insyd 1993]] [[Category:South African activists dem assassinate]] [[Category:South African politicians dem assassinate]] [[Category:Deaths by firearm insyd South Africa]] [[Category:Former Roman Catholics]] [[Category:People wey komot Intsika Yethu Local Municipality]] [[Category:People dem murder insyd South Africa]] [[Category:People of de Rhodesian Bush War]] [[Category:Rhodes University alumni]] [[Category:South African atheists]] [[Category:South African Communist Party politicians]] [[Category:South African communists]] [[Category:South African expatriates insyd de Soviet Union]] [[Category:South African Marxists]] [[Category:South African revolutionaries]] [[Category:UMkhonto we Sizwe personnel]] [[Category:University of Fort Hare alumni]] [[Category:Xhosa people]] 2753qeh3dnwj7swqwhfedam17poauka 67222 67220 2025-06-29T21:33:12Z DaSupremo 9 /* Early life */ Improve article 67222 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Chris Hani''' (28 June 1942 - 10 April 1993;<ref name="sacp_Chri">{{Cite web|title=My Life, An autobiography written in 1991|author=Chris Hani|work=SA Communist Party|date=1991|access-date=3 November 2016|url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225112546/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-date=25 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> born '''Martin Thembisile Hani''') na he be a South African military commander, politician den revolutionary wey serve as de leader of de South African Communist Party (SACP) den chief of staff of uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK), de armed wing of de African National Congress (ANC). Na he be a fierce opponent of de apartheid government, wey na he be assassinated by Janusz Waluś, a Polish immigrant den sympathiser of de Conservative opposition on 10 April 1993, during de unrest wey dey precede de transition to democracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv03370/05lv03422.htm|title=The Death of Chris Hani: An African Misadventure - The O'Malley Archives|website=omalley.nelsonmandela.org|access-date=2019-02-04}}</ref> ==Early life== Na dem born Martin Thembisile Hani on 28 June 1942<ref name="sacp_Chri"/> insyd de Xhosa village insyd Cofimvaba, Transkei. Na ein poppie Gilbert Hani be a mine union worker den political activist wey lef de country to go into exile insyd 1962 wey na he return to South Africa insyd 1991. Na ein mommie Mary Hani be a simple person wey na she never attend school. Na he be de fifth of six kiddies. Na he attend Lovedale school insyd 1957, make he fini ein last two years. Na he twice fini two school grades insyd a single year. Wen Hani be 12 years old, after he hear ein poppie ein explanations about apartheid den de African National Congress (ANC), na he wish make he join de ANC buh na he be still too young make dem accept am.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Van Wyk|first=Chris|title=Chris Hani|publisher=Awareness publishing|year=2003|isbn=1919910131|location=South Africa|page=13}}</ref> Insyd Lovedale school, na Hani join de ANC Youth League wen na he be 15 years old, even though na dem no dey allow political activities for black schools under apartheid. Na he influence other students make dem join de ANC. Insyd an interview insyd 1993 plus Luli Callinicos, na Hani reveal say na he first be involved plus de Unity movement. Na he be influenced make he align plus de ANC secof de activism of de party wey dey concern mass struggles. Na he mention writers such as Govan Mbeki wey play a critical role insyd ein political conversion.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chris Hani interviewed by Luli Callinicos (Johannesburg), 23 and 31 March 1993 {{!}} South African History Online|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/chris-hani-interviewed-luli-callinicos-johannesburg-23-and-31-march-1993|access-date=2025-03-21|website=www.sahistory.org.za}}</ref> Insyd 1959, at de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd Alice, Eastern Cape, na Hani study English, Latin den modern den classical literature. Na he no participate insyd any sport, dey say: "I would rather fight apartheid than play sport." Hani, insyd an interview on de Wankie campaign, mention say na he be a Rhodes University graduate.<ref name="HaniVid">{{cite web|date=3 June 2013|title=Leaders - Chris Hani|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGKhN2BL1-U|publisher=Afravision|location=|via=YouTube}}</ref> == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hani, Chris}} [[Category:1942 births]] [[Category:1993 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century atheists]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:South African people]] [[Category:African politicians dem assassinate insyd de 1990s]] [[Category:African National Congress politicians]] [[Category:South African anti-apartheid activists]] [[Category:Politicians dem assassinate insyd 1993]] [[Category:South African activists dem assassinate]] [[Category:South African politicians dem assassinate]] [[Category:Deaths by firearm insyd South Africa]] [[Category:Former Roman Catholics]] [[Category:People wey komot Intsika Yethu Local Municipality]] [[Category:People dem murder insyd South Africa]] [[Category:People of de Rhodesian Bush War]] [[Category:Rhodes University alumni]] [[Category:South African atheists]] [[Category:South African Communist Party politicians]] [[Category:South African communists]] [[Category:South African expatriates insyd de Soviet Union]] [[Category:South African Marxists]] [[Category:South African revolutionaries]] [[Category:UMkhonto we Sizwe personnel]] [[Category:University of Fort Hare alumni]] [[Category:Xhosa people]] b0awx9u4uqxcg861f4783ybwq4eyjke 67224 67222 2025-06-29T21:37:48Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67224 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Chris Hani''' (28 June 1942 - 10 April 1993;<ref name="sacp_Chri">{{Cite web|title=My Life, An autobiography written in 1991|author=Chris Hani|work=SA Communist Party|date=1991|access-date=3 November 2016|url=http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225112546/http://www.sacp.org.za/main.php?ID=2294|archive-date=25 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> born '''Martin Thembisile Hani''') na he be a South African military commander, politician den revolutionary wey serve as de leader of de South African Communist Party (SACP) den chief of staff of uMkhonto we Sizwe (MK), de armed wing of de African National Congress (ANC). Na he be a fierce opponent of de apartheid government, wey na he be assassinated by Janusz Waluś, a Polish immigrant den sympathiser of de Conservative opposition on 10 April 1993, during de unrest wey dey precede de transition to democracy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://omalley.nelsonmandela.org/omalley/index.php/site/q/03lv02424/04lv03370/05lv03422.htm|title=The Death of Chris Hani: An African Misadventure - The O'Malley Archives|website=omalley.nelsonmandela.org|access-date=2019-02-04}}</ref> ==Early life== Na dem born Martin Thembisile Hani on 28 June 1942<ref name="sacp_Chri"/> insyd de Xhosa village insyd Cofimvaba, Transkei. Na ein poppie Gilbert Hani be a mine union worker den political activist wey lef de country to go into exile insyd 1962 wey na he return to South Africa insyd 1991. Na ein mommie Mary Hani be a simple person wey na she never attend school. Na he be de fifth of six kiddies. Na he attend Lovedale school insyd 1957, make he fini ein last two years. Na he twice fini two school grades insyd a single year. Wen Hani be 12 years old, after he hear ein poppie ein explanations about apartheid den de African National Congress (ANC), na he wish make he join de ANC buh na he be still too young make dem accept am.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Van Wyk|first=Chris|title=Chris Hani|publisher=Awareness publishing|year=2003|isbn=1919910131|location=South Africa|page=13}}</ref> Insyd Lovedale school, na Hani join de ANC Youth League wen na he be 15 years old, even though na dem no dey allow political activities for black schools under apartheid. Na he influence other students make dem join de ANC. Insyd an interview insyd 1993 plus Luli Callinicos, na Hani reveal say na he first be involved plus de Unity movement. Na he be influenced make he align plus de ANC secof de activism of de party wey dey concern mass struggles. Na he mention writers such as Govan Mbeki wey play a critical role insyd ein political conversion.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Chris Hani interviewed by Luli Callinicos (Johannesburg), 23 and 31 March 1993 {{!}} South African History Online|url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/chris-hani-interviewed-luli-callinicos-johannesburg-23-and-31-march-1993|access-date=2025-03-21|website=www.sahistory.org.za}}</ref> Insyd 1959, at de [[University of Fort Hare]] insyd Alice, Eastern Cape, na Hani study English, Latin den modern den classical literature. Na he no participate insyd any sport, dey say: "I would rather fight apartheid than play sport." Hani, insyd an interview on de Wankie campaign, mention say na he be a Rhodes University graduate.<ref name="HaniVid">{{cite web|date=3 June 2013|title=Leaders - Chris Hani|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NGKhN2BL1-U|publisher=Afravision|location=|via=YouTube}}</ref> ==Honours== Insyd 1993, na French philosopher Jacques Derrida dedicate ''Spectres de Marx'' (1993) to Hani.<ref>Jacques Derrida (1994), ''Spectres de Marx: l'état de la dette, le travail du deil et la nouvelle Internationale'', Paris: Galilée, ({{ISBN|978-2-7186-0429-9}}).</ref> * Star of South Africa (''Gold'') ('''SSAG''') (posthumously) * Star for Bravery (''Silver'') ('''SBS''') (posthumously) * Conspicuous Leadership Star ('''CLS''') (posthumously) * Decoration for Merit (''Gold'') ('''DMG''') (posthumously) * Merit Medal (''Silver'') ('''MMS''') (posthumously) * Service Medal (''Gold'') (posthumously) * Service Medal (''Silver'') (posthumously) * Service Medal (''Bronze'') (posthumously) == Recognitions == * Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital insyd Soweto * Thembisile Hani Local Municipality insyd Mpumalanga * Chris Hani District Municipality insyd Eastern Cape == References == <references /> == External links == {{Commons}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Hani, Chris}} [[Category:1942 births]] [[Category:1993 deaths]] [[Category:20th-century atheists]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:South African people]] [[Category:African politicians dem assassinate insyd de 1990s]] [[Category:African National Congress politicians]] [[Category:South African anti-apartheid activists]] [[Category:Politicians dem assassinate insyd 1993]] [[Category:South African activists dem assassinate]] [[Category:South African politicians dem assassinate]] [[Category:Deaths by firearm insyd South Africa]] [[Category:Former Roman Catholics]] [[Category:People wey komot Intsika Yethu Local Municipality]] [[Category:People dem murder insyd South Africa]] [[Category:People of de Rhodesian Bush War]] [[Category:Rhodes University alumni]] [[Category:South African atheists]] [[Category:South African Communist Party politicians]] [[Category:South African communists]] [[Category:South African expatriates insyd de Soviet Union]] [[Category:South African Marxists]] [[Category:South African revolutionaries]] [[Category:UMkhonto we Sizwe personnel]] [[Category:University of Fort Hare alumni]] [[Category:Xhosa people]] r2rm0ifz1o26k4qppykchvumpbkawxq 0 17523 67244 64365 2025-06-29T21:49:30Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67244 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Jacques Depelchin''' (born 06/03/1942) be a Congolese historian den militant.<ref name="msupress.msu.edu">{{Cite web|title=Michigan State University Press Authors Biography for Jacques Depelchin|url=http://msupress.msu.edu/authorbio.php?authorID=830|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100630181640/http://msupress.msu.edu/authorbio.php?authorID=830|archive-date=2010-06-30|access-date=2011-01-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=AfricaFiles {{!}} "This war must end"|url=http://www.africafiles.org/article.asp?ID=3637|access-date=2017-11-21|website=www.africafiles.org}}</ref> He be de Co-Founder den Executive Director of de Ota Benga International Alliance for Peace insyd de DR Congo.<ref name="msupress.msu.edu" /> == Background == A native of de Congo, Depelchin be educate internationally, beginning insyd de Democratic Republic of de Congo plus Lovanium University insyd Kinshasa before relocating to England to attend de University of London, to Italy to attend Johns Hopkins University den to de United States to attend Stanford University. After completing ein education, he taught African History at a number of universities insyd de United States, insyd ein home country, insyd Mozambique den Tanzania.<ref name="msupress.msu.edu" /> Depelchin work as a secretariat for de Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo,<ref name="GanaEgwu2003">{{cite book|last1=Gana|first1=Aaron Tsado|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U185N9mh2EcC&pg=PA34|title=Federalism in Africa: The imperative of democratic development|author2=Samuel G. Egwu|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|isbn=978-1-59221-080-0|page=34|accessdate=2 February 2011}}</ref> which help bring Laurent-Désiré Kabila to power.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/11829563.html?dids=11829563:11829563&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+22%2C+1997&author=Lynne+Duke&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=Congo+Waits+For+List+of+New+Rulers%3B+Kabila%27s+Government+Still+Unannounced&pqatl=google|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717003606/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/11829563.html?dids=11829563:11829563&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+22,+1997&author=Lynne+Duke&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=Congo+Waits+For+List+of+New+Rulers;+Kabila's+Government+Still+Unannounced&pqatl=google|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012|title=Congo Waits For List of New Rulers; Kabila's Government Still Unannounced|work=Washington Post|date=22 May 1995|last=Duke|first=Lynne|accessdate=2 Feb 2011}}</ref> From 1996-2002, he be a member of de Rally for Congolese Democracy, opposing Kabila, being identified in 2000 by ''The New York Times'' as among de group ein leaders.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/13/world/congo-s-war-overshadows-tribal-fight.html?src=pm|title=Congo's War Overshadows Tribal Fight|first=Ian|last=Fisher|date=13 Feb 2000|accessdate=2 Feb 2011|work=The New York Times}}</ref> == Books == * ''Reclaiming African History'' * ''From'' ''de Congo Free State to Zaire (1885-1974): Towards a Demystification of Economic and Political History'', 1992 * ''Silences insyd African History'', 2000 == References == [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] r0l7hg0dphwyrdenijz83yeswe3hmws 67247 67244 2025-06-29T21:52:46Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67247 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Jacques Depelchin''' (born 06/03/1942) be a Congolese historian den militant.<ref name="msupress.msu.edu">{{Cite web|title=Michigan State University Press Authors Biography for Jacques Depelchin|url=http://msupress.msu.edu/authorbio.php?authorID=830|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100630181640/http://msupress.msu.edu/authorbio.php?authorID=830|archive-date=2010-06-30|access-date=2011-01-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=AfricaFiles {{!}} "This war must end"|url=http://www.africafiles.org/article.asp?ID=3637|access-date=2017-11-21|website=www.africafiles.org}}</ref> He be de Co-Founder den Executive Director of de Ota Benga International Alliance for Peace insyd de DR Congo.<ref name="msupress.msu.edu" /> == Background == A native of de Congo, Depelchin be educate internationally, beginning insyd de Democratic Republic of de Congo plus Lovanium University insyd Kinshasa before relocating to England to attend de University of London, to Italy to attend Johns Hopkins University den to de United States to attend Stanford University. After completing ein education, he taught African History at a number of universities insyd de United States, insyd ein home country, insyd Mozambique den Tanzania.<ref name="msupress.msu.edu" /> Depelchin work as a secretariat for de Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo,<ref name="GanaEgwu2003">{{cite book|last1=Gana|first1=Aaron Tsado|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U185N9mh2EcC&pg=PA34|title=Federalism in Africa: The imperative of democratic development|author2=Samuel G. Egwu|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|isbn=978-1-59221-080-0|page=34|accessdate=2 February 2011}}</ref> which help bring Laurent-Désiré Kabila to power.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/11829563.html?dids=11829563:11829563&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+22%2C+1997&author=Lynne+Duke&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=Congo+Waits+For+List+of+New+Rulers%3B+Kabila%27s+Government+Still+Unannounced&pqatl=google|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717003606/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/11829563.html?dids=11829563:11829563&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+22,+1997&author=Lynne+Duke&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=Congo+Waits+For+List+of+New+Rulers;+Kabila's+Government+Still+Unannounced&pqatl=google|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012|title=Congo Waits For List of New Rulers; Kabila's Government Still Unannounced|work=Washington Post|date=22 May 1995|last=Duke|first=Lynne|accessdate=2 Feb 2011}}</ref> From 1996-2002, he be a member of de Rally for Congolese Democracy, opposing Kabila, being identified in 2000 by ''The New York Times'' as among de group ein leaders.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/13/world/congo-s-war-overshadows-tribal-fight.html?src=pm|title=Congo's War Overshadows Tribal Fight|first=Ian|last=Fisher|date=13 Feb 2000|accessdate=2 Feb 2011|work=The New York Times}}</ref> ==Books== *''Reclaiming African History''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Reclaiming African History|last=Depelchin|first=Jacques|date=2011-01-01|publisher=Pambazuka Press|isbn=9781906387983|location=Cape Town|language=English}}</ref> *''From the Congo Free State to Zaire (1885-1974): Towards a Demystification of Economic and Political History'', 1992<ref name="msupress.msu.edu"/> *''Silences in African History'', 2000<ref>{{Cite book|title=Silences in African History|last=Depelchin|first=Jacques|date=2000-09-05|publisher=Mkuki Na Nyota Publishers|isbn=9789976973730|location=Dar es-Salaam|language=English}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] <references /> == External links == mzb8ncnk4gpl382oaq3chhixabocu6k 67248 67247 2025-06-29T21:54:47Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67248 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Jacques Depelchin''' (born 06/03/1942) be a Congolese historian den militant.<ref name="msupress.msu.edu">{{Cite web|title=Michigan State University Press Authors Biography for Jacques Depelchin|url=http://msupress.msu.edu/authorbio.php?authorID=830|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100630181640/http://msupress.msu.edu/authorbio.php?authorID=830|archive-date=2010-06-30|access-date=2011-01-23}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=AfricaFiles {{!}} "This war must end"|url=http://www.africafiles.org/article.asp?ID=3637|access-date=2017-11-21|website=www.africafiles.org}}</ref> He be de Co-Founder den Executive Director of de Ota Benga International Alliance for Peace insyd de DR Congo.<ref name="msupress.msu.edu" /> == Background == A native of de Congo, Depelchin be educate internationally, beginning insyd de Democratic Republic of de Congo plus Lovanium University insyd Kinshasa before relocating to England to attend de University of London, to Italy to attend Johns Hopkins University den to de United States to attend Stanford University. After completing ein education, he taught African History at a number of universities insyd de United States, insyd ein home country, insyd Mozambique den Tanzania.<ref name="msupress.msu.edu" /> Depelchin work as a secretariat for de Alliance of Democratic Forces for de Liberation of Congo,<ref name="GanaEgwu2003">{{cite book|last1=Gana|first1=Aaron Tsado|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U185N9mh2EcC&pg=PA34|title=Federalism in Africa: The imperative of democratic development|author2=Samuel G. Egwu|publisher=Africa World Press|year=2003|isbn=978-1-59221-080-0|page=34|accessdate=2 February 2011}}</ref> which help bring Laurent-Désiré Kabila to power.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/11829563.html?dids=11829563:11829563&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+22%2C+1997&author=Lynne+Duke&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=Congo+Waits+For+List+of+New+Rulers%3B+Kabila%27s+Government+Still+Unannounced&pqatl=google|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120717003606/http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/11829563.html?dids=11829563:11829563&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=May+22,+1997&author=Lynne+Duke&pub=The+Washington+Post&desc=Congo+Waits+For+List+of+New+Rulers;+Kabila's+Government+Still+Unannounced&pqatl=google|url-status=dead|archive-date=July 17, 2012|title=Congo Waits For List of New Rulers; Kabila's Government Still Unannounced|work=Washington Post|date=22 May 1995|last=Duke|first=Lynne|accessdate=2 Feb 2011}}</ref> From 1996-2002, he be a member of de Rally for Congolese Democracy, opposing Kabila, being identified in 2000 by ''The New York Times'' as among de group ein leaders.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/13/world/congo-s-war-overshadows-tribal-fight.html?src=pm|title=Congo's War Overshadows Tribal Fight|first=Ian|last=Fisher|date=13 Feb 2000|accessdate=2 Feb 2011|work=The New York Times}}</ref> ==Books== *''Reclaiming African History''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Reclaiming African History|last=Depelchin|first=Jacques|date=2011-01-01|publisher=Pambazuka Press|isbn=9781906387983|location=Cape Town|language=English}}</ref> *''From the Congo Free State to Zaire (1885-1974): Towards a Demystification of Economic and Political History'', 1992<ref name="msupress.msu.edu"/> *''Silences in African History'', 2000<ref>{{Cite book|title=Silences in African History|last=Depelchin|first=Jacques|date=2000-09-05|publisher=Mkuki Na Nyota Publishers|isbn=9789976973730|location=Dar es-Salaam|language=English}}</ref> == References == [[Category:Living people]] [[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] <references /> == External links == * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080108050722/http://otabenga.org/taxonomy/term/5 Ota Benga Alliance] {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Depelchin, Jacques}} [[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]] [[Category:Human]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo people]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo pan-Africanists]] [[Category:Marxist humanists]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo Africanists]] [[Category:Writers about Africa]] [[Category:Rally for Congolese Democracy politicians]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo non-fiction writers]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo historians]] [[Category:Democratic Republic of the Congo philosophers]] [[Category:Alumni of de University of London]] [[Category:Lovanium University alumni]] [[Category:Historians of de Democratic Republic of the Congo]] jqd5id2mdi2rturb4jtozskh7niqk14 0 17916 67191 66175 2025-06-29T19:25:06Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67191 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Since de early 1990s, de Amhara people of Ethiopia have been subject to ethnic violence, wey include massacres by Tigrayan, Oromo den Gumuz ethnic groups among odas, which some have characterized as a genocide. Large-scale killings den grave human rights violations dey follow de implementation of de ethnic-federalist system insyd de country. Perpetrators include various ethno-militant groups such asTPLF/TDF, OLF–OLA, den armed groups from Gumuz.<ref name="Election">{{Cite web|date=21 June 2021|title=Ethiopia: In the shadow of the elections, Amharas are massacred in silence|url=https://www.europeantimes.news/2021/06/ethiopia-in-the-shadow-of-the-elections-amharas-are-massacred-in-silence/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203104227/https://europeantimes.news/2021/06/ethiopia-in-the-shadow-of-the-elections-amharas-are-massacred-in-silence/|archive-date=3 December 2023|access-date=23 May 2022|website=European Times|language=en-GB}}</ref> Ethnically motivated attacks against de Amhara have been reported, plus mass graves being discovered insyd various locations. De results of two consecutive National Census Analyses den a report by CSA head Samia Gutu revealed dat over 2 million Amhara can not be traced. De figure be generally associated plus de decades-long massacres den disappearances of de Amhara people.<ref name="Ethiopian Dialogue Forum">{{Cite web|date=26 June 2022|title=Statement of the Ethiopian Dialogue Forum on the Amhara Genocide|url=https://borkena.com/2022/06/26/ethiopia-dialouge-forum-statement-on-amhara-genocide/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528204914/https://borkena.com/2022/06/26/ethiopia-dialouge-forum-statement-on-amhara-genocide/|archive-date=28 May 2024|access-date=16 January 2023|publisher=Ethiopian Dialogue Forum}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Genocide Committed Against the Amara (Amhara) in Ethiopia, specifically in Benshangul-Gumuz Regional State, Metekel Zone|url=http://genocidewatch.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/MWAO_Genocide-Report_V3-No1_Tue0Aug2015_Genocide-Committed-Against-the-Amara-Amhara-in-Benshangul-Gumuz-Regional-State-Metekel-Zone-1.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224195648/http://genocidewatch.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/MWAO_Genocide-Report_V3-No1_Tue0Aug2015_Genocide-Committed-Against-the-Amara-Amhara-in-Benshangul-Gumuz-Regional-State-Metekel-Zone-1.pdf|archive-date=24 December 2023|access-date=16 January 2023|publisher=Moresh Wogene via Genocide Watch}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=5 October 2022|title=Amharas: The occulted ongoing genocide in Ethiopia|url=https://www.europeantimes.news/2022/10/amharas-the-occulted-ongoing-genocide-in-ethiopia/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730184419/https://europeantimes.news/2022/10/amharas-the-occulted-ongoing-genocide-in-ethiopia/|archive-date=30 July 2023|access-date=16 January 2023|work=European Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite web|last=Review|first=Eurasia|date=1 July 2022|title=Ethiopia: Mass-Atrocities, Genocide In Oromia Region Against Amhara People – OpEd|url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/02072022-ethiopia-mass-atrocities-genocide-in-oromia-region-against-amhara-people-oped/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027054408/https://www.eurasiareview.com/02072022-ethiopia-mass-atrocities-genocide-in-oromia-region-against-amhara-people-oped/|archive-date=27 October 2022|access-date=16 January 2023|website=Eurasia Review|language=en-US}}</ref> De Tigrayan People ein Liberation Front (TPLF) among oda groups be formed insyd de 1970s plus a manifesto den plan, for Tigray to secede from Ethiopia. Previous resentments between ethnic Tigray den Amhara rulers be seeking recognition as de legitimate defender of Ethiopianism be reported. De Tigray manifesto be criticized for incorporating polarizing contents dat symbolize de Amhara people as de responsible ethnic group for socio-economical, den country-level political den historical issues. Violence against ordinary Amhara, ein intellectuals, den civic leaders dey start insyd de early 1990s, plus de armed Liberation Front groups occupying many parts of de country.<ref name="Hidden massacre Arsi">{{Cite web|date=4 December 1991|title=The Hidden Massacre of Amharas & Christians in Arsi|url=http://www.ethiopians.com/arsima.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718164146/http://www.ethiopians.com/arsima.html|archive-date=18 July 2023|access-date=10 May 2022|website=Ethiopian Information Service Network (S.H.I.N.E)}}</ref><ref name="refworld.org">{{Cite web|date=1 December 1993|title=Ethiopia: Information on the treatment of Amharas in Addis Ababa|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ac3014.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915193658/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ac3014.html|archive-date=15 September 2023|access-date=10 May 2022|publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees}}</ref> At de end of de 17-year communist era insyd 1991, de ethnic-nationalist groups such as de TPLF controlled full power den dis regime change triggered a series of attacks against de Amhara. De TPLF become de dominant power den ruled de country for twenty-seven years as de EPRDF coalition—a political entity dat evolved from de Marxist–Leninist rebels movement. However, de authoritarian regime collapsed insyd 2018 plus several unrests den tensions built during ein period.<ref name="The Oaklandside">{{cite web|last1=Simas|first1=Jacob|last2=Rodas|first2=Ricky|date=22 July 2022|title=As a brutal civil war rages, Ethiopians in Oakland ask why the world isn't tuning in|url=https://oaklandside.org/2022/07/22/oakland-ethiopians-tigray-amhara-war-human-rights/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240824132705/https://oaklandside.org/2022/07/22/oakland-ethiopians-tigray-amhara-war-human-rights/|archive-date=24 August 2024|access-date=16 January 2023|publisher=The Oaklandside}}</ref><ref name="Foley">{{Cite web|last=Foley|first=Ryan|date=20 April 2021|title=Protesters urge Biden admin. to take action against Ethiopia for genocide of Amhara, Orthodox Christians|url=https://www.christianpost.com/news/protesters-urge-biden-to-take-action-to-stop-ethiopia-genocide.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603052553/https://www.christianpost.com/news/protesters-urge-biden-to-take-action-to-stop-ethiopia-genocide.html|archive-date=3 June 2024|access-date=22 June 2022|publisher=The Christian Post|language=en-US}}</ref> Following de 2018 EPRDF political reform, de Oromo-led Prosperity Party secure de position to rule de country, A power struggle occur between de former den current ruling parties which lead to de Tigray War. Reports show dat a pro-TPLF youth group dey carry out de massacre of Amhara civilians insyd de town of Mai-Kadra. Following de Tigray Defense Forces (TDF) recapture of most of Tigray which lead to the subsequent withdrawal of government forces, de TDF invaded de Amhara den de Afar regions insyd July 2021, massacring den wey cause severe destructions dat be reported as serious war crimes against civilians. De Mai Kadra den oda massacres insyd de Amhara region dat occur since de start of de war dey expand de map den volume of de mass killings de already occurring violations insyd various places: Oromia, Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel Zone), Tigray, de SNNPR, den de Amhara region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bihonegn |first1=Adugna |last2=Mekonen |first2=Aleminew |year=2022 |title="It Only Reopens Old Wounds": Lived Experiences of Amhara Genocide Survivors From the Miakadra Massacre in Ethiopia |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/10443894221127067 |journal=Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services |volume=104 |pages=31–46 |doi=10.1177/10443894221127067 |s2cid=253293924 |url-access=subscription |access-date=16 January 2023}}</ref> == Background == De Amhara den Agew peoples coexisted den shared historical den cultural values for centuries. Similar to oda Ethiopian nationals, both groups dey contributed to building de Nation den they sana make contributions to de nation ein long historical accounts— they live insyd most parts of Ethiopia. Since agriculture be de main source of food insyd de country, Amhara den Agew farmers earn income from producing staples. Due to de frequent drought occurrence, they are, however, stricken by poverty— more than 80 percent of them be traditional farmers. Insyd some instances, these groups be mis-presented as Orthodox Christians, although, significant proportion of them be Muslims den Jews. Both groups have been exposed to similar existential risks— wey include de systematic massacres den crimes disclose insyd dis article. However, claims of genocide against de Agew people requires an independent report. == Perpetrators == De controversial section insyd de 1994 constitution, ethnic self-determination to secede from de nation, be described by experts as de root cause of ethnic-based violence insyd de country. Reports discussed dat de perpetrators be generally organized, insyd some cases they can be identified by de victims, den insyd oda, de attackers be unknown to them. De actors demonstrated mixed motives: ethnic origin (plus these common religions insyd Ethiopia: Christian, Muslim den Jews), religious origin (Orthodox Christians), or both. De armed groups mobilize from region to region plus alleged collaboration plus local government officials, den be from these groups * Ethnic Oromo militant perpetrators such as de OLA (former military wing of de OLF) sana known as Shane or Oneg. De Qeerroo youth groups sana be accused of collaborating plus these groups * De Tigrayan actors such as de TPLF, TDF den pro-TPLF youth groups insyd de annexed, den various places insyd Amhara region * Gumuz actors insyd de Metekel Zone which be insyd de Benishangul-Gumuz region. * Oda actors insyd de Southern SNNPR region den oda places == Timeline == De four major Amhara genocidal timelines include: # The rebel movements can be characterized as Manifesto preparation period dat influence de ethnic federalist constitution, plus campaigns, reprisal, den guerrilla wars # De launch of massacres across many regions under Tigray Region den de TPLF regime dat ruled Ethiopia from 1991 to 2018 # De scaled-up simultaneous mass killings insyd many regions under de Oromo-led Prosperity Party ruling begin insyd 2018, den # Expansion of Amhara mass killings plus de Tigray War since November 2020 == Pre-1991: De manifesto rhetoric den historical accounts == There be over eighty ethnic groups insyd Ethiopia dat have been living together through history. Insyd de 1970s de ethno-nationalist insurgents be created under de TPLF leadership plus Marxist–Leninist manifesto seeking Autonomy, Self-Rule, den for some, Hegemony. De groups be de TPLF (Tigrayan People ein Liberation Front), OLF (Oromo Liberation Front), EPLF (Eritrean People ein Liberation Front), den WSLF (Western Somali Liberation Front). De doctrine dey consist of anti-Amhara rhetoric dat portray de group as de all-time-sole-ruler. However, de divisive narratives be disapproved by most den taken as de political mechanism used to introduce ethnic sensitivities. For leadership insyd de southeastern den southwestern parts of Ethiopia, history reflects dat those plus Oromo or de assimilated Oromized backgrounds exercise ruling outside of demma traditional jurisdictions wey include insyd de partial northcentral part of de country where most Amhara den others lived. Records show dat de era of Zemene Mesafint den onwards central governance be diverse. De aggression of de Oromo dat dey follow de Islamic invasions insyd de 16th century den subsequent Oromo settlements to central Ethiopia bring some changes to parts of de historical jurisdictions occupy by odas— renaming of lands den rivalry. De documented Oromo assimilation den expansion mechanisms involve "Mogassa den Gudifecha", typically described by de member of de group as methods of "adopting" oda ethnic groups. De controversial assimilating process involve de unbreakable oath: to hate what de group hate; to like what de group like; to fight what de group fight; to go where de group goes; to chase what de group chases. There be over fifty six ethnic constituents who have been living insyd de southern regions. De groups practice ancient customs to elect demma leaders den generally maintain traditions. Historians dey record exceptional cases insyd which several tribes be assimilated into de Oromo group. Insyd general terms, natural ethnic tensions den ruling rivalries occurred insyd de country throughout history. However, de complex groups develop traditional approaches to coexisting. Despite ethnic differences, intermarriages den collaborative customs between de various groups have been practiced insyd most instances. Reports show dat these constituents dey unite when external threats be projected against de country. == 1991– 2018: TPLF rule den Article 39 == Insyd 1991, de TPLF-dominated ruling be established as de EPRDF coalition plus a new constitution den subsequent regional demarcations. De controversial Article 39, Nations, Nationalist, den People Self-determination be part of de constitution den grants rights for any ethnic group to secede den form a Nation. During dis period, polarizing contents be thought of insyd schools den dey promote through de system. === Annexations === De 27-year rule of de TPLF regime has been characterized as a repressive system plus many forms of massacres, enforced disappearances, den systematic destructive measures taken against de Amhara, den oda ethnic groups. Reports show dat mass killings of de Amhara dey start insyd de Assosa zone of de Benishangul-Gumuz region insyd de Metekel zone (which be then part of Gojjam Province) insyd insurgents, mass violence den crackdowns on Amhara intellectuals den ein public figures launched. A political opponent who sana be a medical professor den surgeon, Asrat Woldeyes be imprisoned den abused along plus oda members of de All Amhara People Organization (AAPO) civic group. The cause of de elderly doctor Asrat ein death be associated with the lack of timely medical treatment following the abuse that he endured during and after his imprisonments. TPLF ruled de country for nearly three decades plus multiple rigged elections dat lead to mass violence den killings of innocent people insyd Addis Ababa, abuses, den torture against journalists den public figures insyd various regions, wey include insyd de Amhara region. See Massacres by region, for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. === Massacres den crackdowns === De 27-year rule of de TPLF regime has been characterized as a repressive system plus many forms of massacres, enforce disappearances, den systematic destructive measures taken against de Amhara, den oda ethnic groups. Reports show dat mass killings of de Amhara dey start insyd de Assosa zone of de Benishangul-Gumuz region insyd de Metekel zone (which be then part of Gojjam Province) insyd 1990. After de 1991 power control by de TPLF den insurgents, mass violence den crackdowns on Amhara intellectuals den ein public figures launched. A political opponent who sana be a medical professor den surgeon, Asrat Woldeyes be imprisoned den abused along plus oda members of de All Amhara People Organization (AAPO) civic group. De cause of de elderly doctor Asrat ein death be associated plus de lack of timely medical treatment wey follow de abuse dat he endure during ein after ein imprisonments. TPLF rule de country for nearly three decades plus multiple rigged elections dat dey lead to mass violence den killings of innocent people insyd Addis Ababa, abuses, den torture against journalists den public figures insyd various regions, wey include insyd de Amhara region. See Massacres by region, for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. == 2018— present: Transition to the Oromo-Led Prosperity Party == Reports show dat many hope for peace when de TPLF regime be replaced plus a new Prime minister, Abiy Ahmed, who sana be de 2019 Nobel Peace prize awardee. He come to power from de Oromo Democratic Party (ODP)— dat he has been serving as de chairman. Many of de express concerns over ein administration include domination of Oromo-based power insyd ein council, ministerial den parliamentary circles, impunity of perpetrators, plus concerns over repressive ruling as insyd de case of de TPLF ein authoritarian regime. As of July 6, 2022, this period be active plus large scale massacres insyd Wollega, Oromia— see de Amhara massacres insyd 2022–2023. === State incitements === Oromia reportedly become one of de hostile regions for de Amhara to live insyd, since de ethno-nationalist insurgents took power insyd 1991, but more so, since de new Oromo-led regime come to power insyd 2018. Abiy ein governmental decision to bring de exiled den fully armed Oromo rebels back den controversial diaspora activists be condemned for lack of disarming measures den for subsequent widespread hate speeches against de Amhara. Dis event lead to de parallel Amhara mass killings insyd various locations. De OLA, which formerly be de military wing of de OLF – carry out similar massacres insyd de 1990s. Insyd addition, de polarizing den open remarks make at a large Oromo public gathering by the Oromia President, Mr. Shimelis Abdissa heavily criticized. His speech, "We broke de Neftegna or Amhara" be broadcast on national television. Such incitements dey believe to be de reasons for de launch of waves of violence against Amhara insyd many regions, plus no obvious punitive measures den de lack of formal acknowledgments from officials. See De June 14th Parliamentary speeches, for anoda reported instance of politically charge statement given by Abiy Ahmed Ali. === De Burayu den Shashemene massacres === These be selected cases from de series of Amhara mass murders— see Massacres by region for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. De Burayu massacre occur on de outskirt of Addis Ababa insyd September 2018. De Oromo Querro youth groups reportedly carry out de mass violence against non-Oromo residents from de Dorzes, Gamos, den oda ethnicities wey include de Amhara. Dis be one of de first violence dat dey occur after Abiy take power. Reports show dat de perpetrators demonstrated mixed motives— ethnic origin, religious origin, or both. For de 2019 Shashemene massacre insyd Oromia, witness statements reveal dat de attacking mobs be coordinated. Primarily de Amhara, den Orthodox Christians from oda ethnic groups— from Guraghe, Wolayita, Tigrayans, Oromo, den odas were murdered insyd dis violence. Due to these mass killings, Christian religious leaders be abused den killed, churches turn to ashes, den treasures den literary works be destroyed. Similar heinous acts be orchestrated insyd many regions by de various perpetrators. Statements disclose dat de killers dey demand conversion to Islam when executing Orthodox Christians from Amhara. Dis be followed by mass violence following de assassination of an ethnic Oromo singer, Hachalu Hundessa, insyd 2020. Although de ethnic origin of de shooter be not disclosed at de time of de attack, Oromo youth mobilized den start to attack Amhara civilians blaming them for de death of de singer - demonstrating pre-meditated den coordinate violences against Amhara den Orthodox groups. As a result of dis mass violence, over 200 people be massacred by armed Oromo groups plus no clear punitive measures. De government accuse OLA rebels for these massacres. === Abductions den massacres === Anoda mass murder dey occur insyd Oromia when a controversial Oromo political elite, Jawar Mohammed, make a social media call to ein supporters, complaining government ein decision to remove de personal guards assigned to him. Following ein call at night, organized Oromo actors came out and reportedly massacred Amhara— at least 86 people were killed. In parallel to the mass killings insyd Oromia, de abduction of 17 University Amhara students insyd 2019 by de OLA from Dembi Dolo University, den insyd oda places sana be reported. De families of these girls dey communicate dat demma children never return. As of May 2022, dis case remain open plus no obvious action from officials. Oda forms of abductions include— Amhara kidnapping insyd Wollega, Oromia, den oda OLA targeted parts of de Amhara region. Insyd addition, a series of mass killings den displacements of Amhara, Agew, den oda groups, have been reported insyd de Benishangul-gumuz & Metekel, den de Southern SNNP regions. These be selected cases from de series of Amhara mass murders insyd various regions— see Massacres by region for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. === De Ataye massacre === Multiple attacks have been launched by de OLA den oda Oromo militant groups plus aggression insyd de Amhara Region insyd North Shewa— insyd Efrata Ena Gidim, den Kewet districts. De attacks included door-to-door mass executions insyd Ataye, Shewa Robit, Jewuha, Senbete, Majete, Molale, den de surrounding villages. Ataye be once a vibrant Amhara business den a tourist town before de series of attacks carry out insyd late 2020. De three consecutive mass violence insyd a short time reportedly ruin de majority of de city. Na Ataye be insyd de process of recovery from de Ataye clashes when e dey face ein de third destruction as a result of de TDF-OLA joint offensive dat occur insyd November 2021. Similarly, Majete den de surrounding towns be reportedly pillaged frequently by de OLA militants. Witness statements dey reveal dat perpetrators be equipped plus snipers den artillery when attacking ethnic Amhara civilians. Surviving IDPs dey report systematic collaborations between de killers den alleged state officials. These frequent attacks insyd de Northern Shewa be associated plus acts of expansion den ethnic cleansing. Insyd April 2021 a series of demonstrations be held insyd de Amhara region plus a lead slogan, ''Beka'' or ''በቃ'' or NoMore, asking government officials for protective measures— for de waves of Amhara massacres dat occur insyd many locations. Insyd response to these events, arbitrary detention den abuses be reported. These be selected cases from de series of Amhara mass murders insyd various regions— see Massacres by region for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. === Annexation, ethnic restructuring den violence insyd Addis Ababa === At de start of de 2018 Prosperity ruling, attacks insyd den around Addis Ababa, de Capital of Ethiopia, begin plus de Burayu mass killings of non-Oromo residents, which dey cause many to flee de area. Forced removal of de Amhara, property destructions, mass Oromo transfer from oda areas plus settlement programs, frequent attacks against residents by de Oromo Querro youth, police shootings, murders, den abuses of those turnout to public den religious celebrations, plus plain Green-Yellow-Red tri-color cloth or items, be some of de reported violence against citizens. Serious concerns have been expressed against de controversial den aggressive annexation mechanisms impose on de Capital Addis Ababa— to annex it to de Oromia region. Analyses indicated dat de "special interest" claims of de Oromo regime be tied plus terms agreed upon between some ethno-nationalist groups before coming to power. Some of de actions include de enforcement of new policies den systematic administrative changes to Addis Ababa den ein surrounding jurisdictions. These measures dey face resistance from residents, den civil voices— de Balderas Party. Previously disclose annexations wey follow de Tigray regional demarcation include forceful integrations of Welkait  den Raya-Alamata to Tigray, de Metekel zone to Benishangul-Gumuz, den Dera, to de Oromia region. See De June 14th Parliamentary speeches, dat is described as politically charged statements given by Abiy Ahmed Ali against Addis Ababa. == 2020—present: Tigray War == Reports show dat de scale of Amhara mass murder insyd de high-risk Oromia den Benishangul-Gumuz regions intensified plus de parallel Tigray War dat begin insyd November 2020. At de beginning of de war, de Samri youth group reportedly executed between 600 den 1500 ethnic Amhara civilians insyd de town of Mai-Kadra. After 9 months of fighting insyd de Tigray region, de Tigray Defense Forces retook most of Tigray den advance towards den invade de neighbouring Amhara den Afar regions insyd July 2021— massacring civilians insyd de occupied areas. Reports uncover dat villages burned down, various forms of sexual violence committed against women den children, livestock killed, institutions den service centers ransacked, den harvests burn down. Over 2 million Amhara IDPs fled to de south but case reports show dat those who stay behind be gang-raped at gunpoint, looted, den abused. Witness accounts sanso expose dat Tigray rebels coerced Amhara children as frontline war shields. De government be criticized for underestimating de Tigray forces, den announcing victory while de attacks continued insyd both Amhara den Afar regions. === Strategic retreat directives === De Amhara militias such as Fano den oda forces who fought against de Tigrayan rebels insyd de Amhara region stated dat they were ambushed plus military directives, which lead de TDF forces to advance. Some of de accusations include Oromo extremists ein infiltration into key federal military positions. Questionable commands wey include for fighters to retreat south, leaving weapons den armored vehicles behind, be heavily criticized. Insyd December 2021, numerous international organizations make calls to demma citizens for urgent evacuation from Ethiopia, while de TDF move towards Addis Ababa. Insyd Wollo, North Shewa, den de Afar region, de TDF den de Oromo Liberation Army carried out joint mass attacks against Afar den Amhara people. Plus no cost one can put on de lives of many innocent people, recovery from de brutal destructions insyd both regions be estimated to take years. === Afar den de Southern groups === Insyd July 2021, de TDF begin shelling de Afar region to control de strategic route connecting to de Djiboutian border but face heavy resistance. Repeat attacks be launched against Afar pastoralists, civilians mass murdered, many have been raped, towns den villages looted, institutions ransacked, plus cases of weapon-induced body burns of children. Following de withdrawal of Tigrayan forces, reports covered dat de TDF discard explosives insyd public areas— resulting insyd numerous deaths den injuries of children insyd de Afar Region. De war crimes den oda grave human rights violations against de Afar people require an independent article or report. Of de eighty ethnicities insyd Ethiopia, de Amhara den de Oromo are de most populous groups. However, most southern ethnic groups be relatively small insyd number, den lack representations insyd de political space den de military structure. Therefore, they remain at risk of silent atrocities den possible cultural genocide. De Tigrayan minority, however, dominated government power den ruled de country for twenty-seven years from 1991 to 2018. Insyd addition to de massacres against de Amhara den Afar people, de TPLF regime reportedly committed de Gambela massacre, against de Anuak minority in 2003, den massacres insyd Ogaden during de insurgency. Plus de new Oromo-led regime from 2018 onwards, serious concerns have been expressed for de Amaro or Korre ethnic groups den oda southerners plus numerous killings against these groups, den de violation of coercing de minorities under de Oromo assimilation mechanisms. == De alleged crimes against de Amhara == De three decades-long alleged crimes against de Amhara may fall under de definition of genocide according to de UN Genocide Convention den de ICC Rome Statute articles. === I. Genocidal Acts (Article 6 of de Rome Statute) === Across many regions, ethnically motivate, targeted, den organized gruesome mass killings have been commit against de Amhara— causing serious bodily den mental harm using rape, sexual den gender-based violence, enforce pregnancy, den oda forms of attacks. Manner of killings include dismemberment, immolation, point-blank executions, den enforced miscarriages plus lacerations, den creating deplorable living conditions insyd de annexed outside of de Amhara region by preventing them from accessing medical treatments. Oda acts include de enforced removal of Amhara through evictions, burning of de homes den demma harvest, den looting of farm animals plus de destruction of hospitals, schools, water sources, den oda necessities. Additionally, witnesses reported prohibition from speaking den learning demma language insyd de annexed den oda regions. === II. Crimes Against Humanity (Article 7 of de Rome Statute) === Insyd Mai-Kadra, a Tigrayan militia order de Amhara to stay insyd de house before they be mass murder den looted. Researchers from Gondar University exhume bodies insyd thousands insyd Welkait where de territory be annexed den under de control of de Tigray Region. Additional mass graves of de Amhara exist insyd various regions den awaiting exhumation. Insyd many of de places, survivor statements revealed dat perpetrators be coordinated, organize den brought name lists when carrying out door-to-door executions. Insyd most of de violence, ethnic Amhara have been separated from oda groups den executed— both Muslims den Christians be murder den buried together against ein religious practices. Insyd oda cases, de perpetrators targeted Orthodox Christians. De Amhara be victims of abduction, enforced removal den disappearance, detention, torture, enslavement, den blockades. Rape, sexual violence, den enforced pregnancy den targeted infertility sterilization cases sana be reported. Deplorable living conditions be created against de group wey cause preventable death by exposing them to high-risk infectious environments den denying malaria treatments den oda critical medical care. Oda systematic oppressions such as persecution, physical den mental abuses plus arbitrary imprisonments be reported. === III. War Crimes (Article 8 of de Rome Statute) === Insyd addition to de Mai-Kadra massacre, Tigray forces invaded Amhara den executed civilians since June 2021. plus cases accompanied by sadistic acts, physical abuse den torture, den verbal abuse or dehumanization wey include regular use of ethnic slurs den humiliation which inflict irreparable physical den psychological trauma on survivors. Numerous victims die as a result of dis specific violence. Insyd addition, civilian properties be pillaged, den schools den health facilities, villages, towns, cities, farm animals, harvests, den religious institutions be ransacked. Witness accounts sana exposed Tigray rebels for coercing Amhara children as frontline war shields. De Oromo OLF-OLA armed groups create an alliance plus de Tigray TPLF rebels den pillaged many Amhara den Afar towns. Insyd addition to civilians mass murders, de attacks caused de displacement of millions of Amhara, Agew, den Afar people plus over 11 million Amhara seeking urgent needs. Mass graves of de victims be discovered den being exhumed insyd many shelled towns den villages. === Partial list of massacres by Tigrayan forces === De massacres perpetrated by de TPLF be organized by location from North Gondar to North Shewa zones of de Amhara Region # Chenna massacre # Mai Kadra massacre # Kobo massacre # North-Gonder: Aderkay massacre # North-Gonder: Debark massacre, Deria Debark massacre # South-Gonder: Debretabor massacre # South-Gonder: Gayint area massacres(Este massacre, Farta massacre, Guna Begemider/Gassey massacre) # Wag Hemra massacre (Tsagbji Tsata massacre, Qedamit massacre) # North-Wollo: Raya Kobo massacre (Kobo town massacre, Gobeye massacre, 027 Keble massacre, Aradum massacre, Nigus Galle massacre, Ayub Village massacre) # North-Wollo: Raya Alamata massacre (Waja massacre) # North-Wollo: Woldya massacre (Piassa massacre, Hamusit massacre, Tinfaz massacre) # North-Wollo: Wadla Gashena massacre, Delanta Beklo Manekia massacre, Flakit massacre, Meket massacre # North-Wollo: Hara Gubalafto massacre # North-Wollo: Habru Wurgessa massacre, Libo massacre, Mersa massacre # North-Wollo: Wuchale massacre, Haik massacre # South-Wollo: Dessie Zuria massacre, Jama and Kalla massacre, Kutaber massacre, Legambo massacre, Tenta massacre, Woreillu massacre # South-Wollo: Kombolcha massacre, Kalu massacre, Tehuledere massacre, Worebabo massacre # North-Shewa: Antsokiya Gemza Massacre # North-Shewa: Debre Sina massacre, Shew Robit massacre === A partial list of massacres insyd de Afar region by Tigray forces === # Galikoma massacre == Massacres by region == De Table covers most locations of de mass violence against de Amhara people insyd Ethiopia. Due to de scale den de dynamic nature of de massacre, de list requires frequent updating. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Region or Province !Zone, District, or County |- |Oromia, Hararghe and Western Shewa |Wollega: East Wollega, West Wollega,Horo Gudru, Kelem East Hararghe:Gelemso, Anchar, Daro Lebu, Wefi Dance and others West Hararghe:  Gara Muleta, Asebot Monastery, Gelemso, Bedeno, Weter and others Dire Dawa Arusi or Arsi: Shashemene, Arba Gugu and others Bale Jimma Ambo and its surroundings |- |Benishangul-Gumuz |Assosa Metekel Kamashi |- |Annexed-lands in Tigray |Welkait: Mai-Kadra and others |- |Amhara: War-related and other situations |North Shewa: Efratana Gidim, Kewet, Antsokiya Gemzu, and others Gonder: Gonder city, North and South Gonder Gojjam: Bahir Dar city and others Bethe-Amhara Wollo: North and South Wollo |- |Southern SNNPR |Gura Ferda: Bench–Sheko and others |- |Others |Gambela Somali |} == National den international reactions == Reports of de Ethiopian Human Rights Commission be generally taken as credible plus some questions of independence. On de oda hand, de state-owned media be criticized for selectively covering atrocities committed by de opposing Tigray forces while excluding de massacres carry out by de Oromo den Gumuz perpetrators. Oda independent voices dat expose de mass violence by all perpetrator groups be frequently arrested den persecuted. Insyd previous cases, high-level coverages be given by international groups on OLA (which was then de military wing of de OLF) atrocities e had perpetrated against de Amhara people insyd Arba Gugu, Bedeno, Harer, den across de Oromia region insyd de 1990s. However, de violations since 2018 receive generally low coverage den inadequate preventative campaigns plus delay responses for Amhara, Agew, den Afar IDP cases. Related to de Tigray War, major international media den rights groups be expelled from de country. Government accusations include disinformation den misleading social media propaganda. Insyd addition, war den oda reports of de Amnesty International den Human Rights Watch groups have been criticized for quality den reportedly biased statements released insyd favor of de Tigray rebels. Insyd some cases, international reports plus unverified information be released. === De NoMore campaign === Insyd April 2021, de Amhara human rights demonstrations take place insyd de region using a social movement slogan, ''Beka'' or ''በቃ'' or NoMore. Insyd late 2021, de same slogan has been used by Pan-African activists to campaign against Western measures on de ruling Prosperity Party— protesting de HR 6600 den oda United States resolutions den bills. However, de victim side criticize de movement as a state funded, politically motivated, selective campaign dat neglected de mass violence den abuses against de Amhara insyd de country. Dis movement reportedly reduce ein effort following de release of high-profile TPLF den OLF political prisoners plus amnesty insyd January 2022— plus possible peace negotiation between de ruling Prosperity party, TPLF den de OLA. However, questions have been raised about de nature of de negotiation plus de same groups who have already been designated as terrorist groups by de Ethiopian government. == Amhara massacres insyd 2022–2023 == === De June 14th Parliamentary speeches === Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed Ali addressed de Ethiopian parliament on June 14, 2022, just four days before de waves of de Amhara massacres insyd various zones den villages insyd Wollega, de Oromia region. Abiy be an Oromo einself den come to power from de Oromo Democratic Party (ODP) dat he has been serving as de chairman insyd addition to ein primary role as de Prime Minister of de ruling Prosperity Party. De parliament session be broadcast live on television. Abiy ein argument highlighted de default Oromo eligibility den entitlement for a high share insyd comparison plus de oda ethnic groups; ein speech on these topics lasted from 3:33 to 3:40 hours of de session den be criticized as an inflammatory den politically charged factor dat prompted violence— de June to July 2022 Amhara massacres by de OLA, plus alleged collaboration plus de regional state officials. One of ein speeches emphasized dat, as one of de majority ethnic groups, de Oromo have not receive de large shares they deserved insyd de political den economic space— insyd security, leadership, workforce, business, den oda sectors, while adding dat de Amhara be de group dat dominates de majority of positions insyd these structures. De statement include dat de Oromo farmers have not been earning a quarter of what they deserved, commenting dat "dis no be right." Abiy sana present accusations against residents of Addis Ababa for what he described as deep-rooted hate against de Oromo. He add dat de school systems den communities insyd Addis Ababa have been accommodative of foreign languages such as French, Greek, Italian, German, Turkish, English, den oda, while "hating den refusing" de Oromo language insyd de school den various systems— stressing dat those who be hesitant for adopting de Oromo language while practicing alien systems may not be called Ethiopians. These statements of Abiy have been condemned for triggering further ethnic tension dat be believed to revive de already fragile ethnic violence den intolerance insyd de Oromia den oda regions where de Amhara be a minority den targeted. See State incitements, for prior reports on inflammatory speeches by odas. === De Tole den Gimbi massacres === One of de 2022 deadliest massacres of de Amhara occur on 18 June insyd de place named Tole den neighboring villages, insyd Gimbi Wollega of de Oromia region. De government blame rebels, den witnesses accuse de Oromo Liberation Army (OLA) as perpetrators but de OLA accuse government forces. Witnesses from de area dey state dat ethnic Amhara have been selected den "killed like chickens"— they count over 230 bodies. They fear dat de numbers can be higher since many Amhara have been abducted den could not be traced. Residents expressed serious concerns about de continuation of de attack if de Federal army leave de areas. Due to a lack of protection, de Amhara community requested assist relocation to escape further attacks by de OLA. Numerous international reports reveal dat de scale of de targeted killings be larger insyd multiple Gimbi villages where de massacres occur than what initial reports covered on June 18, 2022. More victims be identified, den de number of counted bodies increased plus days, from 230 to over 500, possibly higher. Informal statements reported over 3000, however, an independent field investigation be needed for a complete list of de victims. De OLA has been massacring de Amhara since de early 1990s. Due to conflict plus de former TPLF regime, de Oromo rebels remain exiled until de Nobel Prize Awardee, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed bring them back from Eritrea when he take power insyd 2018. These groups return armed den sana be accused of vandalizing over eighteen banks insyd de Oromia region plus no clear punitive measures from de government. Large-scale killings of de Amhara have dey carry out by de same group since then. Motives of de perpetrators vary from location to location— ethnic origin, religious origin, or both. Insyd de Gimbi massacres, de name list indicated dat de majority of de victims be Muslim Amhara. Reports dey cover dat those who hide insyd de mosque be surrounded den murdered. Most of de ethnic Amhara inhabitants insyd Gimbi be migrants from de Wollo Province who be resettled by de former communist government, de Derg regime, after drought den famine hit de province. Similarly, de Shashemene massacre insyd July 2020 demonstrate anoda religious motive. Insyd dis attack, Orthodox Christians predominantly from Amhara den oda from different ethnic groups sana be targeted. On de oda hand, insyd De Ataye massacre den oda locations, both Muslim den Orthodox Amhara be executed den mass-buried together, despite religious differences. Numerous international reports reveal dat de scale of de targeted killings be larger insyd multiple Gimbi villages where de massacres occur than what initial reports coveron June 18, 2022. More victims be identified, den de number of counted bodies increase plus days, from 230 to over 500, possibly higher. Informal statements report over 3000, however, an independent field investigation be needed for a complete list of de victims. De OLA has been massacring de Amhara since de early 1990s. Due to conflict plus de former TPLF regime, de Oromo rebels remain exiled until de Nobel Prize Awardee, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed brought them back from Eritrea when he take power insyd 2018. These groups return armed den sana be accused of vandalizing over eighteen banks insyd de Oromia region plus no clear punitive measures from de government. Large-scale killings of de Amhara have been carry out by de same group since then. Motives of de perpetrators vary from location to location— ethnic origin, religious origin, or both. Insyd de Gimbi massacres, de name list indicate dat the majority of de victims were Muslim Amhara. Reports cover dat those who hide insyd de mosque be surrounded den murdered. Most of de ethnic Amhara inhabitants insyd Gimbi be migrants from de Wollo Province who be resettled by de former communist government, de Derg regime, after drought den famine hit the province. Similarly, the Shashemene massacre in July 2020 demonstrated another religious motive. In dis attack, Orthodox Christians predominantly from Amhara den odas from different ethnic groups sana be targeted. On sana be oda hand, insyd De Ataye massacre den oda locations, both Muslim den Orthodox Amhara be executed den mass-buried together, despite religious differences. === De Kellem massacre === On July 4, 2022, de Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC) make calls for an urgent reinforcement of government security forces following de massacres dat occurred against de minority Amhara people insyd Kellem, which be one of de zones insyd Wollega, Oromia. De specific Amhara villages sana be known as Mender 20 den Mender 21 insyd de Hawa Gelan Woreda. Dis violence occurred inside two weeks from de June 2022 Gimbi massacre dat claim de lives of several hundred innocent Amhara. Both Kellem den Gimbi be close to each oda den be around 400 kilometers away from de capital, Addis Ababa. EHRC never disclose de number of de victims but report dat the Oromo Liberation Army (OLA) be de responsible attackers. One of de patterns dat witnesses den reports highlighted be dat communications be generally down insyd de areas where killings be carried out, wey indicate possible coordination rather than a coincidence. === Attacks insyd Efrata ena Gidim (Ataye area) === Reports show dat since 2018, dis become de fourth attack against de Amhara civilians insyd de Efrata ena Gidim Woreda insyd de Northern Shewa of de Amhara region dat start on 10 July 2022 den continue for several days, insyd de Arso Amboa (Zembo), den Wayena kebeles near Ataye town. De violence claim at least 17 civilian lives den many injured den hundreds displaced, along plus a siege dat lead to property damages, wey include de burning of residential homes. Many of de victims be farmers, den witnesses described de return of de violence den initiations of de attacks insyd de hot spot conflict areas by de OLA, insyd de borderline between de Oromia Zone where ethnic Oromo live insyd de Amhara region, den de local Amhara farmers. IDPs den survivors insyd Debre Berhan, Shewa Robit, Mahale Meda, den oda areas express fear for demma security for returning to demma homes. Many of them expressed dat they lost demma loved ones due to repeated attacks. Records show dat there be unresolved frequent territorial den administrative disputes between de Oromia special zone den de Amhara region insyd which de Oromo exercise autonomy since ein creation insyd 1995 by de former TPLF regime. === War insyd Amahara === Main article: War insyd Amhara § Human rights violations During de War insyd Amhara dat start insyd 2023, drone strikes insyd late 2023 mostly kill civilians, according to media reports. Insyd February 2024, e be reported dat Ethiopian troops dey kill 45 civilians insyd a massacre insyd Amhara state since late January. Insyd September 2024, de EHRC accuse federal government forces of carrying out extrajudicial killings insyd Amhara, den mass arbitrary detentions insyd de region den elsewhere. Since de beginning of de war de US based Institute Lemkin for Genocide Prevention issue a red flag alert, characterizing de mass abduction den detention of Amharas as potentially indicative of a looming genocide == Calls from various voices == Preventative measures den early warning efforts be expected to limit further ethnic-based destructions against targeted ethnic groups. De diasporas den odas insyd de country make calls to de rights, humanitarian, accountability, den oda influential groups to take action. Although de Amhara den Agew massacres have been going on for over thirty years, many expressed dat de case has not receive adequate campaign den media coverage. However, due to de scale den frequency of de attacks, progress has been observed insyd de number of reports. Despite political interest or country profile, such "marginalized" human rights cases require timely root cause assessment for de implementation of preventative measures, accountability mechanisms, den providing humanitarian needs. == References == 38ssfptkhnyxcebswefrpq395175wgy 67193 67191 2025-06-29T19:26:37Z DaSupremo 9 Improve article 67193 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} Since de early 1990s, de Amhara people of Ethiopia have been subject to ethnic violence, wey include massacres by Tigrayan, Oromo den Gumuz ethnic groups among odas, which some have characterized as a genocide. Large-scale killings den grave human rights violations dey follow de implementation of de ethnic-federalist system insyd de country. Perpetrators include various ethno-militant groups such asTPLF/TDF, OLF–OLA, den armed groups from Gumuz.<ref name="Election">{{Cite web|date=21 June 2021|title=Ethiopia: In the shadow of the elections, Amharas are massacred in silence|url=https://www.europeantimes.news/2021/06/ethiopia-in-the-shadow-of-the-elections-amharas-are-massacred-in-silence/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203104227/https://europeantimes.news/2021/06/ethiopia-in-the-shadow-of-the-elections-amharas-are-massacred-in-silence/|archive-date=3 December 2023|access-date=23 May 2022|website=European Times|language=en-GB}}</ref> Ethnically motivated attacks against de Amhara have been reported, plus mass graves being discovered insyd various locations. De results of two consecutive National Census Analyses den a report by CSA head Samia Gutu revealed dat over 2 million Amhara can not be traced. De figure be generally associated plus de decades-long massacres den disappearances of de Amhara people.<ref name="Ethiopian Dialogue Forum">{{Cite web|date=26 June 2022|title=Statement of the Ethiopian Dialogue Forum on the Amhara Genocide|url=https://borkena.com/2022/06/26/ethiopia-dialouge-forum-statement-on-amhara-genocide/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240528204914/https://borkena.com/2022/06/26/ethiopia-dialouge-forum-statement-on-amhara-genocide/|archive-date=28 May 2024|access-date=16 January 2023|publisher=Ethiopian Dialogue Forum}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Genocide Committed Against the Amara (Amhara) in Ethiopia, specifically in Benshangul-Gumuz Regional State, Metekel Zone|url=http://genocidewatch.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/MWAO_Genocide-Report_V3-No1_Tue0Aug2015_Genocide-Committed-Against-the-Amara-Amhara-in-Benshangul-Gumuz-Regional-State-Metekel-Zone-1.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231224195648/http://genocidewatch.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/MWAO_Genocide-Report_V3-No1_Tue0Aug2015_Genocide-Committed-Against-the-Amara-Amhara-in-Benshangul-Gumuz-Regional-State-Metekel-Zone-1.pdf|archive-date=24 December 2023|access-date=16 January 2023|publisher=Moresh Wogene via Genocide Watch}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=5 October 2022|title=Amharas: The occulted ongoing genocide in Ethiopia|url=https://www.europeantimes.news/2022/10/amharas-the-occulted-ongoing-genocide-in-ethiopia/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730184419/https://europeantimes.news/2022/10/amharas-the-occulted-ongoing-genocide-in-ethiopia/|archive-date=30 July 2023|access-date=16 January 2023|work=European Times|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":19">{{Cite web|last=Review|first=Eurasia|date=1 July 2022|title=Ethiopia: Mass-Atrocities, Genocide In Oromia Region Against Amhara People – OpEd|url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/02072022-ethiopia-mass-atrocities-genocide-in-oromia-region-against-amhara-people-oped/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221027054408/https://www.eurasiareview.com/02072022-ethiopia-mass-atrocities-genocide-in-oromia-region-against-amhara-people-oped/|archive-date=27 October 2022|access-date=16 January 2023|website=Eurasia Review|language=en-US}}</ref> De Tigrayan People ein Liberation Front (TPLF) among oda groups be formed insyd de 1970s plus a manifesto den plan, for Tigray to secede from Ethiopia. Previous resentments between ethnic Tigray den Amhara rulers be seeking recognition as de legitimate defender of Ethiopianism be reported. De Tigray manifesto be criticized for incorporating polarizing contents dat symbolize de Amhara people as de responsible ethnic group for socio-economical, den country-level political den historical issues. Violence against ordinary Amhara, ein intellectuals, den civic leaders dey start insyd de early 1990s, plus de armed Liberation Front groups occupying many parts of de country.<ref name="Hidden massacre Arsi">{{Cite web|date=4 December 1991|title=The Hidden Massacre of Amharas & Christians in Arsi|url=http://www.ethiopians.com/arsima.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230718164146/http://www.ethiopians.com/arsima.html|archive-date=18 July 2023|access-date=10 May 2022|website=Ethiopian Information Service Network (S.H.I.N.E)}}</ref><ref name="refworld.org">{{Cite web|date=1 December 1993|title=Ethiopia: Information on the treatment of Amharas in Addis Ababa|url=https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ac3014.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230915193658/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6ac3014.html|archive-date=15 September 2023|access-date=10 May 2022|publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees}}</ref> At de end of de 17-year communist era insyd 1991, de ethnic-nationalist groups such as de TPLF controlled full power den dis regime change triggered a series of attacks against de Amhara. De TPLF become de dominant power den ruled de country for twenty-seven years as de EPRDF coalition—a political entity dat evolved from de Marxist–Leninist rebels movement. However, de authoritarian regime collapsed insyd 2018 plus several unrests den tensions built during ein period.<ref name="The Oaklandside">{{cite web|last1=Simas|first1=Jacob|last2=Rodas|first2=Ricky|date=22 July 2022|title=As a brutal civil war rages, Ethiopians in Oakland ask why the world isn't tuning in|url=https://oaklandside.org/2022/07/22/oakland-ethiopians-tigray-amhara-war-human-rights/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240824132705/https://oaklandside.org/2022/07/22/oakland-ethiopians-tigray-amhara-war-human-rights/|archive-date=24 August 2024|access-date=16 January 2023|publisher=The Oaklandside}}</ref><ref name="Foley">{{Cite web|last=Foley|first=Ryan|date=20 April 2021|title=Protesters urge Biden admin. to take action against Ethiopia for genocide of Amhara, Orthodox Christians|url=https://www.christianpost.com/news/protesters-urge-biden-to-take-action-to-stop-ethiopia-genocide.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240603052553/https://www.christianpost.com/news/protesters-urge-biden-to-take-action-to-stop-ethiopia-genocide.html|archive-date=3 June 2024|access-date=22 June 2022|publisher=The Christian Post|language=en-US}}</ref> Following de 2018 EPRDF political reform, de Oromo-led Prosperity Party secure de position to rule de country, A power struggle occur between de former den current ruling parties which lead to de Tigray War. Reports show dat a pro-TPLF youth group dey carry out de massacre of Amhara civilians insyd de town of Mai-Kadra. Following de Tigray Defense Forces (TDF) recapture of most of Tigray which lead to the subsequent withdrawal of government forces, de TDF invaded de Amhara den de Afar regions insyd July 2021, massacring den wey cause severe destructions dat be reported as serious war crimes against civilians. De Mai Kadra den oda massacres insyd de Amhara region dat occur since de start of de war dey expand de map den volume of de mass killings de already occurring violations insyd various places: Oromia, Benishangul-Gumuz (Metekel Zone), Tigray, de SNNPR, den de Amhara region.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bihonegn |first1=Adugna |last2=Mekonen |first2=Aleminew |year=2022 |title="It Only Reopens Old Wounds": Lived Experiences of Amhara Genocide Survivors From the Miakadra Massacre in Ethiopia |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/10443894221127067 |journal=Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Social Services |volume=104 |pages=31–46 |doi=10.1177/10443894221127067 |s2cid=253293924 |url-access=subscription |access-date=16 January 2023}}</ref> == Background == De Amhara den Agew peoples coexisted den shared historical den cultural values for centuries. Similar to oda Ethiopian nationals, both groups dey contributed to building de Nation den they sana make contributions to de nation ein long historical accounts— they live insyd most parts of Ethiopia. Since agriculture be de main source of food insyd de country, Amhara den Agew farmers earn income from producing staples. Due to de frequent drought occurrence, they are, however, stricken by poverty— more than 80 percent of them be traditional farmers. Insyd some instances, these groups be mis-presented as Orthodox Christians, although, significant proportion of them be Muslims den Jews. Both groups have been exposed to similar existential risks— wey include de systematic massacres den crimes disclose insyd dis article. However, claims of genocide against de Agew people requires an independent report. == Perpetrators == De controversial section insyd de 1994 constitution, ethnic self-determination to secede from de nation, be described by experts as de root cause of ethnic-based violence insyd de country. Reports discussed dat de perpetrators be generally organized, insyd some cases they can be identified by de victims, den insyd oda, de attackers be unknown to them. De actors demonstrated mixed motives: ethnic origin (plus these common religions insyd Ethiopia: Christian, Muslim den Jews), religious origin (Orthodox Christians), or both. De armed groups mobilize from region to region plus alleged collaboration plus local government officials, den be from these groups * Ethnic Oromo militant perpetrators such as de OLA (former military wing of de OLF) sana known as Shane or Oneg. De Qeerroo youth groups sana be accused of collaborating plus these groups * De Tigrayan actors such as de TPLF, TDF den pro-TPLF youth groups insyd de annexed, den various places insyd Amhara region * Gumuz actors insyd de Metekel Zone which be insyd de Benishangul-Gumuz region. * Oda actors insyd de Southern SNNPR region den oda places == Timeline == De four major Amhara genocidal timelines include: # The rebel movements can be characterized as Manifesto preparation period dat influence de ethnic federalist constitution, plus campaigns, reprisal, den guerrilla wars # De launch of massacres across many regions under Tigray Region den de TPLF regime dat ruled Ethiopia from 1991 to 2018 # De scaled-up simultaneous mass killings insyd many regions under de Oromo-led Prosperity Party ruling begin insyd 2018, den # Expansion of Amhara mass killings plus de Tigray War since November 2020 == Pre-1991: De manifesto rhetoric den historical accounts == There be over eighty ethnic groups insyd Ethiopia dat have been living together through history. Insyd de 1970s de ethno-nationalist insurgents be created under de TPLF leadership plus Marxist–Leninist manifesto seeking Autonomy, Self-Rule, den for some, Hegemony. De groups be de TPLF (Tigrayan People ein Liberation Front), OLF (Oromo Liberation Front), EPLF (Eritrean People ein Liberation Front), den WSLF (Western Somali Liberation Front). De doctrine dey consist of anti-Amhara rhetoric dat portray de group as de all-time-sole-ruler. However, de divisive narratives be disapproved by most den taken as de political mechanism used to introduce ethnic sensitivities. For leadership insyd de southeastern den southwestern parts of Ethiopia, history reflects dat those plus Oromo or de assimilated Oromized backgrounds exercise ruling outside of demma traditional jurisdictions wey include insyd de partial northcentral part of de country where most Amhara den others lived. Records show dat de era of Zemene Mesafint den onwards central governance be diverse. De aggression of de Oromo dat dey follow de Islamic invasions insyd de 16th century den subsequent Oromo settlements to central Ethiopia bring some changes to parts of de historical jurisdictions occupy by odas— renaming of lands den rivalry. De documented Oromo assimilation den expansion mechanisms involve "Mogassa den Gudifecha", typically described by de member of de group as methods of "adopting" oda ethnic groups. De controversial assimilating process involve de unbreakable oath: to hate what de group hate; to like what de group like; to fight what de group fight; to go where de group goes; to chase what de group chases. There be over fifty six ethnic constituents who have been living insyd de southern regions. De groups practice ancient customs to elect demma leaders den generally maintain traditions. Historians dey record exceptional cases insyd which several tribes be assimilated into de Oromo group. Insyd general terms, natural ethnic tensions den ruling rivalries occurred insyd de country throughout history. However, de complex groups develop traditional approaches to coexisting. Despite ethnic differences, intermarriages den collaborative customs between de various groups have been practiced insyd most instances. Reports show dat these constituents dey unite when external threats be projected against de country. == 1991– 2018: TPLF rule den Article 39 == Insyd 1991, de TPLF-dominated ruling be established as de EPRDF coalition plus a new constitution den subsequent regional demarcations. De controversial Article 39, Nations, Nationalist, den People Self-determination be part of de constitution den grants rights for any ethnic group to secede den form a Nation. During dis period, polarizing contents be thought of insyd schools den dey promote through de system. === Annexations === De 27-year rule of de TPLF regime has been characterized as a repressive system plus many forms of massacres, enforced disappearances, den systematic destructive measures taken against de Amhara, den oda ethnic groups. Reports show dat mass killings of de Amhara dey start insyd de Assosa zone of de Benishangul-Gumuz region insyd de Metekel zone (which be then part of Gojjam Province) insyd insurgents, mass violence den crackdowns on Amhara intellectuals den ein public figures launched. A political opponent who sana be a medical professor den surgeon, Asrat Woldeyes be imprisoned den abused along plus oda members of de All Amhara People Organization (AAPO) civic group. The cause of de elderly doctor Asrat ein death be associated with the lack of timely medical treatment following the abuse that he endured during and after his imprisonments. TPLF ruled de country for nearly three decades plus multiple rigged elections dat lead to mass violence den killings of innocent people insyd Addis Ababa, abuses, den torture against journalists den public figures insyd various regions, wey include insyd de Amhara region. See Massacres by region, for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. === Massacres den crackdowns === De 27-year rule of de TPLF regime has been characterized as a repressive system plus many forms of massacres, enforce disappearances, den systematic destructive measures taken against de Amhara, den oda ethnic groups. Reports show dat mass killings of de Amhara dey start insyd de Assosa zone of de Benishangul-Gumuz region insyd de Metekel zone (which be then part of Gojjam Province) insyd 1990. After de 1991 power control by de TPLF den insurgents, mass violence den crackdowns on Amhara intellectuals den ein public figures launched. A political opponent who sana be a medical professor den surgeon, Asrat Woldeyes be imprisoned den abused along plus oda members of de All Amhara People Organization (AAPO) civic group. De cause of de elderly doctor Asrat ein death be associated plus de lack of timely medical treatment wey follow de abuse dat he endure during ein after ein imprisonments. TPLF rule de country for nearly three decades plus multiple rigged elections dat dey lead to mass violence den killings of innocent people insyd Addis Ababa, abuses, den torture against journalists den public figures insyd various regions, wey include insyd de Amhara region. See Massacres by region, for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. == 2018— present: Transition to the Oromo-Led Prosperity Party == Reports show dat many hope for peace when de TPLF regime be replaced plus a new Prime minister, Abiy Ahmed, who sana be de 2019 Nobel Peace prize awardee. He come to power from de Oromo Democratic Party (ODP)— dat he has been serving as de chairman. Many of de express concerns over ein administration include domination of Oromo-based power insyd ein council, ministerial den parliamentary circles, impunity of perpetrators, plus concerns over repressive ruling as insyd de case of de TPLF ein authoritarian regime. As of July 6, 2022, this period be active plus large scale massacres insyd Wollega, Oromia— see de Amhara massacres insyd 2022–2023. === State incitements === Oromia reportedly become one of de hostile regions for de Amhara to live insyd, since de ethno-nationalist insurgents took power insyd 1991, but more so, since de new Oromo-led regime come to power insyd 2018. Abiy ein governmental decision to bring de exiled den fully armed Oromo rebels back den controversial diaspora activists be condemned for lack of disarming measures den for subsequent widespread hate speeches against de Amhara. Dis event lead to de parallel Amhara mass killings insyd various locations. De OLA, which formerly be de military wing of de OLF – carry out similar massacres insyd de 1990s. Insyd addition, de polarizing den open remarks make at a large Oromo public gathering by the Oromia President, Mr. Shimelis Abdissa heavily criticized. His speech, "We broke de Neftegna or Amhara" be broadcast on national television. Such incitements dey believe to be de reasons for de launch of waves of violence against Amhara insyd many regions, plus no obvious punitive measures den de lack of formal acknowledgments from officials. See De June 14th Parliamentary speeches, for anoda reported instance of politically charge statement given by Abiy Ahmed Ali. === De Burayu den Shashemene massacres === These be selected cases from de series of Amhara mass murders— see Massacres by region for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. De Burayu massacre occur on de outskirt of Addis Ababa insyd September 2018. De Oromo Querro youth groups reportedly carry out de mass violence against non-Oromo residents from de Dorzes, Gamos, den oda ethnicities wey include de Amhara. Dis be one of de first violence dat dey occur after Abiy take power. Reports show dat de perpetrators demonstrated mixed motives— ethnic origin, religious origin, or both. For de 2019 Shashemene massacre insyd Oromia, witness statements reveal dat de attacking mobs be coordinated. Primarily de Amhara, den Orthodox Christians from oda ethnic groups— from Guraghe, Wolayita, Tigrayans, Oromo, den odas were murdered insyd dis violence. Due to these mass killings, Christian religious leaders be abused den killed, churches turn to ashes, den treasures den literary works be destroyed. Similar heinous acts be orchestrated insyd many regions by de various perpetrators. Statements disclose dat de killers dey demand conversion to Islam when executing Orthodox Christians from Amhara. Dis be followed by mass violence following de assassination of an ethnic Oromo singer, Hachalu Hundessa, insyd 2020. Although de ethnic origin of de shooter be not disclosed at de time of de attack, Oromo youth mobilized den start to attack Amhara civilians blaming them for de death of de singer - demonstrating pre-meditated den coordinate violences against Amhara den Orthodox groups. As a result of dis mass violence, over 200 people be massacred by armed Oromo groups plus no clear punitive measures. De government accuse OLA rebels for these massacres. === Abductions den massacres === Anoda mass murder dey occur insyd Oromia when a controversial Oromo political elite, Jawar Mohammed, make a social media call to ein supporters, complaining government ein decision to remove de personal guards assigned to him. Following ein call at night, organized Oromo actors came out and reportedly massacred Amhara— at least 86 people were killed. In parallel to the mass killings insyd Oromia, de abduction of 17 University Amhara students insyd 2019 by de OLA from Dembi Dolo University, den insyd oda places sana be reported. De families of these girls dey communicate dat demma children never return. As of May 2022, dis case remain open plus no obvious action from officials. Oda forms of abductions include— Amhara kidnapping insyd Wollega, Oromia, den oda OLA targeted parts of de Amhara region. Insyd addition, a series of mass killings den displacements of Amhara, Agew, den oda groups, have been reported insyd de Benishangul-gumuz & Metekel, den de Southern SNNP regions. These be selected cases from de series of Amhara mass murders insyd various regions— see Massacres by region for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. === De Ataye massacre === Multiple attacks have been launched by de OLA den oda Oromo militant groups plus aggression insyd de Amhara Region insyd North Shewa— insyd Efrata Ena Gidim, den Kewet districts. De attacks included door-to-door mass executions insyd Ataye, Shewa Robit, Jewuha, Senbete, Majete, Molale, den de surrounding villages. Ataye be once a vibrant Amhara business den a tourist town before de series of attacks carry out insyd late 2020. De three consecutive mass violence insyd a short time reportedly ruin de majority of de city. Na Ataye be insyd de process of recovery from de Ataye clashes when e dey face ein de third destruction as a result of de TDF-OLA joint offensive dat occur insyd November 2021. Similarly, Majete den de surrounding towns be reportedly pillaged frequently by de OLA militants. Witness statements dey reveal dat perpetrators be equipped plus snipers den artillery when attacking ethnic Amhara civilians. Surviving IDPs dey report systematic collaborations between de killers den alleged state officials. These frequent attacks insyd de Northern Shewa be associated plus acts of expansion den ethnic cleansing. Insyd April 2021 a series of demonstrations be held insyd de Amhara region plus a lead slogan, ''Beka'' or ''በቃ'' or NoMore, asking government officials for protective measures— for de waves of Amhara massacres dat occur insyd many locations. Insyd response to these events, arbitrary detention den abuses be reported. These be selected cases from de series of Amhara mass murders insyd various regions— see Massacres by region for locations of crimes across Ethiopia. === Annexation, ethnic restructuring den violence insyd Addis Ababa === At de start of de 2018 Prosperity ruling, attacks insyd den around Addis Ababa, de Capital of Ethiopia, begin plus de Burayu mass killings of non-Oromo residents, which dey cause many to flee de area. Forced removal of de Amhara, property destructions, mass Oromo transfer from oda areas plus settlement programs, frequent attacks against residents by de Oromo Querro youth, police shootings, murders, den abuses of those turnout to public den religious celebrations, plus plain Green-Yellow-Red tri-color cloth or items, be some of de reported violence against citizens. Serious concerns have been expressed against de controversial den aggressive annexation mechanisms impose on de Capital Addis Ababa— to annex it to de Oromia region. Analyses indicated dat de "special interest" claims of de Oromo regime be tied plus terms agreed upon between some ethno-nationalist groups before coming to power. Some of de actions include de enforcement of new policies den systematic administrative changes to Addis Ababa den ein surrounding jurisdictions. These measures dey face resistance from residents, den civil voices— de Balderas Party. Previously disclose annexations wey follow de Tigray regional demarcation include forceful integrations of Welkait  den Raya-Alamata to Tigray, de Metekel zone to Benishangul-Gumuz, den Dera, to de Oromia region. See De June 14th Parliamentary speeches, dat is described as politically charged statements given by Abiy Ahmed Ali against Addis Ababa. == 2020—present: Tigray War == Reports show dat de scale of Amhara mass murder insyd de high-risk Oromia den Benishangul-Gumuz regions intensified plus de parallel Tigray War dat begin insyd November 2020. At de beginning of de war, de Samri youth group reportedly executed between 600 den 1500 ethnic Amhara civilians insyd de town of Mai-Kadra. After 9 months of fighting insyd de Tigray region, de Tigray Defense Forces retook most of Tigray den advance towards den invade de neighbouring Amhara den Afar regions insyd July 2021— massacring civilians insyd de occupied areas. Reports uncover dat villages burned down, various forms of sexual violence committed against women den children, livestock killed, institutions den service centers ransacked, den harvests burn down. Over 2 million Amhara IDPs fled to de south but case reports show dat those who stay behind be gang-raped at gunpoint, looted, den abused. Witness accounts sanso expose dat Tigray rebels coerced Amhara children as frontline war shields. De government be criticized for underestimating de Tigray forces, den announcing victory while de attacks continued insyd both Amhara den Afar regions. === Strategic retreat directives === De Amhara militias such as Fano den oda forces who fought against de Tigrayan rebels insyd de Amhara region stated dat they were ambushed plus military directives, which lead de TDF forces to advance. Some of de accusations include Oromo extremists ein infiltration into key federal military positions. Questionable commands wey include for fighters to retreat south, leaving weapons den armored vehicles behind, be heavily criticized. Insyd December 2021, numerous international organizations make calls to demma citizens for urgent evacuation from Ethiopia, while de TDF move towards Addis Ababa. Insyd Wollo, North Shewa, den de Afar region, de TDF den de Oromo Liberation Army carried out joint mass attacks against Afar den Amhara people. Plus no cost one can put on de lives of many innocent people, recovery from de brutal destructions insyd both regions be estimated to take years. === Afar den de Southern groups === Insyd July 2021, de TDF begin shelling de Afar region to control de strategic route connecting to de Djiboutian border but face heavy resistance. Repeat attacks be launched against Afar pastoralists, civilians mass murdered, many have been raped, towns den villages looted, institutions ransacked, plus cases of weapon-induced body burns of children. Following de withdrawal of Tigrayan forces, reports covered dat de TDF discard explosives insyd public areas— resulting insyd numerous deaths den injuries of children insyd de Afar Region. De war crimes den oda grave human rights violations against de Afar people require an independent article or report. Of de eighty ethnicities insyd Ethiopia, de Amhara den de Oromo are de most populous groups. However, most southern ethnic groups be relatively small insyd number, den lack representations insyd de political space den de military structure. Therefore, they remain at risk of silent atrocities den possible cultural genocide. De Tigrayan minority, however, dominated government power den ruled de country for twenty-seven years from 1991 to 2018. Insyd addition to de massacres against de Amhara den Afar people, de TPLF regime reportedly committed de Gambela massacre, against de Anuak minority in 2003, den massacres insyd Ogaden during de insurgency. Plus de new Oromo-led regime from 2018 onwards, serious concerns have been expressed for de Amaro or Korre ethnic groups den oda southerners plus numerous killings against these groups, den de violation of coercing de minorities under de Oromo assimilation mechanisms. == De alleged crimes against de Amhara == De three decades-long alleged crimes against de Amhara may fall under de definition of genocide according to de UN Genocide Convention den de ICC Rome Statute articles. === I. Genocidal Acts (Article 6 of de Rome Statute) === Across many regions, ethnically motivate, targeted, den organized gruesome mass killings have been commit against de Amhara— causing serious bodily den mental harm using rape, sexual den gender-based violence, enforce pregnancy, den oda forms of attacks. Manner of killings include dismemberment, immolation, point-blank executions, den enforced miscarriages plus lacerations, den creating deplorable living conditions insyd de annexed outside of de Amhara region by preventing them from accessing medical treatments. Oda acts include de enforced removal of Amhara through evictions, burning of de homes den demma harvest, den looting of farm animals plus de destruction of hospitals, schools, water sources, den oda necessities. Additionally, witnesses reported prohibition from speaking den learning demma language insyd de annexed den oda regions. === II. Crimes Against Humanity (Article 7 of de Rome Statute) === Insyd Mai-Kadra, a Tigrayan militia order de Amhara to stay insyd de house before they be mass murder den looted. Researchers from Gondar University exhume bodies insyd thousands insyd Welkait where de territory be annexed den under de control of de Tigray Region. Additional mass graves of de Amhara exist insyd various regions den awaiting exhumation. Insyd many of de places, survivor statements revealed dat perpetrators be coordinated, organize den brought name lists when carrying out door-to-door executions. Insyd most of de violence, ethnic Amhara have been separated from oda groups den executed— both Muslims den Christians be murder den buried together against ein religious practices. Insyd oda cases, de perpetrators targeted Orthodox Christians. De Amhara be victims of abduction, enforced removal den disappearance, detention, torture, enslavement, den blockades. Rape, sexual violence, den enforced pregnancy den targeted infertility sterilization cases sana be reported. Deplorable living conditions be created against de group wey cause preventable death by exposing them to high-risk infectious environments den denying malaria treatments den oda critical medical care. Oda systematic oppressions such as persecution, physical den mental abuses plus arbitrary imprisonments be reported. === III. War Crimes (Article 8 of de Rome Statute) === Insyd addition to de Mai-Kadra massacre, Tigray forces invaded Amhara den executed civilians since June 2021. plus cases accompanied by sadistic acts, physical abuse den torture, den verbal abuse or dehumanization wey include regular use of ethnic slurs den humiliation which inflict irreparable physical den psychological trauma on survivors. Numerous victims die as a result of dis specific violence. Insyd addition, civilian properties be pillaged, den schools den health facilities, villages, towns, cities, farm animals, harvests, den religious institutions be ransacked. Witness accounts sana exposed Tigray rebels for coercing Amhara children as frontline war shields. De Oromo OLF-OLA armed groups create an alliance plus de Tigray TPLF rebels den pillaged many Amhara den Afar towns. Insyd addition to civilians mass murders, de attacks caused de displacement of millions of Amhara, Agew, den Afar people plus over 11 million Amhara seeking urgent needs. Mass graves of de victims be discovered den being exhumed insyd many shelled towns den villages. === Partial list of massacres by Tigrayan forces === De massacres perpetrated by de TPLF be organized by location from North Gondar to North Shewa zones of de Amhara Region # Chenna massacre # Mai Kadra massacre # Kobo massacre # North-Gonder: Aderkay massacre # North-Gonder: Debark massacre, Deria Debark massacre # South-Gonder: Debretabor massacre # South-Gonder: Gayint area massacres(Este massacre, Farta massacre, Guna Begemider/Gassey massacre) # Wag Hemra massacre (Tsagbji Tsata massacre, Qedamit massacre) # North-Wollo: Raya Kobo massacre (Kobo town massacre, Gobeye massacre, 027 Keble massacre, Aradum massacre, Nigus Galle massacre, Ayub Village massacre) # North-Wollo: Raya Alamata massacre (Waja massacre) # North-Wollo: Woldya massacre (Piassa massacre, Hamusit massacre, Tinfaz massacre) # North-Wollo: Wadla Gashena massacre, Delanta Beklo Manekia massacre, Flakit massacre, Meket massacre # North-Wollo: Hara Gubalafto massacre # North-Wollo: Habru Wurgessa massacre, Libo massacre, Mersa massacre # North-Wollo: Wuchale massacre, Haik massacre # South-Wollo: Dessie Zuria massacre, Jama and Kalla massacre, Kutaber massacre, Legambo massacre, Tenta massacre, Woreillu massacre # South-Wollo: Kombolcha massacre, Kalu massacre, Tehuledere massacre, Worebabo massacre # North-Shewa: Antsokiya Gemza Massacre # North-Shewa: Debre Sina massacre, Shew Robit massacre === A partial list of massacres insyd de Afar region by Tigray forces === # Galikoma massacre == Massacres by region == De Table covers most locations of de mass violence against de Amhara people insyd Ethiopia. Due to de scale den de dynamic nature of de massacre, de list requires frequent updating. {| class="wikitable" |+ !Region or Province !Zone, District, or County |- |Oromia, Hararghe and Western Shewa |Wollega: East Wollega, West Wollega,Horo Gudru, Kelem East Hararghe:Gelemso, Anchar, Daro Lebu, Wefi Dance and others West Hararghe:  Gara Muleta, Asebot Monastery, Gelemso, Bedeno, Weter and others Dire Dawa Arusi or Arsi: Shashemene, Arba Gugu and others Bale Jimma Ambo and its surroundings |- |Benishangul-Gumuz |Assosa Metekel Kamashi |- |Annexed-lands in Tigray |Welkait: Mai-Kadra and others |- |Amhara: War-related and other situations |North Shewa: Efratana Gidim, Kewet, Antsokiya Gemzu, and others Gonder: Gonder city, North and South Gonder Gojjam: Bahir Dar city and others Bethe-Amhara Wollo: North and South Wollo |- |Southern SNNPR |Gura Ferda: Bench–Sheko and others |- |Others |Gambela Somali |} == National den international reactions == Reports of de Ethiopian Human Rights Commission be generally taken as credible plus some questions of independence. On de oda hand, de state-owned media be criticized for selectively covering atrocities committed by de opposing Tigray forces while excluding de massacres carry out by de Oromo den Gumuz perpetrators. Oda independent voices dat expose de mass violence by all perpetrator groups be frequently arrested den persecuted. Insyd previous cases, high-level coverages be given by international groups on OLA (which was then de military wing of de OLF) atrocities e had perpetrated against de Amhara people insyd Arba Gugu, Bedeno, Harer, den across de Oromia region insyd de 1990s. However, de violations since 2018 receive generally low coverage den inadequate preventative campaigns plus delay responses for Amhara, Agew, den Afar IDP cases. Related to de Tigray War, major international media den rights groups be expelled from de country. Government accusations include disinformation den misleading social media propaganda. Insyd addition, war den oda reports of de Amnesty International den Human Rights Watch groups have been criticized for quality den reportedly biased statements released insyd favor of de Tigray rebels. Insyd some cases, international reports plus unverified information be released. === De NoMore campaign === Insyd April 2021, de Amhara human rights demonstrations take place insyd de region using a social movement slogan, ''Beka'' or ''በቃ'' or NoMore. Insyd late 2021, de same slogan has been used by Pan-African activists to campaign against Western measures on de ruling Prosperity Party— protesting de HR 6600 den oda United States resolutions den bills. However, de victim side criticize de movement as a state funded, politically motivated, selective campaign dat neglected de mass violence den abuses against de Amhara insyd de country. Dis movement reportedly reduce ein effort following de release of high-profile TPLF den OLF political prisoners plus amnesty insyd January 2022— plus possible peace negotiation between de ruling Prosperity party, TPLF den de OLA. However, questions have been raised about de nature of de negotiation plus de same groups who have already been designated as terrorist groups by de Ethiopian government. == Amhara massacres insyd 2022–2023 == === De June 14th Parliamentary speeches === Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed Ali addressed de Ethiopian parliament on June 14, 2022, just four days before de waves of de Amhara massacres insyd various zones den villages insyd Wollega, de Oromia region. Abiy be an Oromo einself den come to power from de Oromo Democratic Party (ODP) dat he has been serving as de chairman insyd addition to ein primary role as de Prime Minister of de ruling Prosperity Party. De parliament session be broadcast live on television. Abiy ein argument highlighted de default Oromo eligibility den entitlement for a high share insyd comparison plus de oda ethnic groups; ein speech on these topics lasted from 3:33 to 3:40 hours of de session den be criticized as an inflammatory den politically charged factor dat prompted violence— de June to July 2022 Amhara massacres by de OLA, plus alleged collaboration plus de regional state officials. One of ein speeches emphasized dat, as one of de majority ethnic groups, de Oromo have not receive de large shares they deserved insyd de political den economic space— insyd security, leadership, workforce, business, den oda sectors, while adding dat de Amhara be de group dat dominates de majority of positions insyd these structures. De statement include dat de Oromo farmers have not been earning a quarter of what they deserved, commenting dat "dis no be right." Abiy sana present accusations against residents of Addis Ababa for what he described as deep-rooted hate against de Oromo. He add dat de school systems den communities insyd Addis Ababa have been accommodative of foreign languages such as French, Greek, Italian, German, Turkish, English, den oda, while "hating den refusing" de Oromo language insyd de school den various systems— stressing dat those who be hesitant for adopting de Oromo language while practicing alien systems may not be called Ethiopians. These statements of Abiy have been condemned for triggering further ethnic tension dat be believed to revive de already fragile ethnic violence den intolerance insyd de Oromia den oda regions where de Amhara be a minority den targeted. See State incitements, for prior reports on inflammatory speeches by odas. === De Tole den Gimbi massacres === One of de 2022 deadliest massacres of de Amhara occur on 18 June insyd de place named Tole den neighboring villages, insyd Gimbi Wollega of de Oromia region. De government blame rebels, den witnesses accuse de Oromo Liberation Army (OLA) as perpetrators but de OLA accuse government forces. Witnesses from de area dey state dat ethnic Amhara have been selected den "killed like chickens"— they count over 230 bodies. They fear dat de numbers can be higher since many Amhara have been abducted den could not be traced. Residents expressed serious concerns about de continuation of de attack if de Federal army leave de areas. Due to a lack of protection, de Amhara community requested assist relocation to escape further attacks by de OLA. Numerous international reports reveal dat de scale of de targeted killings be larger insyd multiple Gimbi villages where de massacres occur than what initial reports covered on June 18, 2022. More victims be identified, den de number of counted bodies increased plus days, from 230 to over 500, possibly higher. Informal statements reported over 3000, however, an independent field investigation be needed for a complete list of de victims. De OLA has been massacring de Amhara since de early 1990s. Due to conflict plus de former TPLF regime, de Oromo rebels remain exiled until de Nobel Prize Awardee, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed bring them back from Eritrea when he take power insyd 2018. These groups return armed den sana be accused of vandalizing over eighteen banks insyd de Oromia region plus no clear punitive measures from de government. Large-scale killings of de Amhara have dey carry out by de same group since then. Motives of de perpetrators vary from location to location— ethnic origin, religious origin, or both. Insyd de Gimbi massacres, de name list indicated dat de majority of de victims be Muslim Amhara. Reports dey cover dat those who hide insyd de mosque be surrounded den murdered. Most of de ethnic Amhara inhabitants insyd Gimbi be migrants from de Wollo Province who be resettled by de former communist government, de Derg regime, after drought den famine hit de province. Similarly, de Shashemene massacre insyd July 2020 demonstrate anoda religious motive. Insyd dis attack, Orthodox Christians predominantly from Amhara den oda from different ethnic groups sana be targeted. On de oda hand, insyd De Ataye massacre den oda locations, both Muslim den Orthodox Amhara be executed den mass-buried together, despite religious differences. Numerous international reports reveal dat de scale of de targeted killings be larger insyd multiple Gimbi villages where de massacres occur than what initial reports coveron June 18, 2022. More victims be identified, den de number of counted bodies increase plus days, from 230 to over 500, possibly higher. Informal statements report over 3000, however, an independent field investigation be needed for a complete list of de victims. De OLA has been massacring de Amhara since de early 1990s. Due to conflict plus de former TPLF regime, de Oromo rebels remain exiled until de Nobel Prize Awardee, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed brought them back from Eritrea when he take power insyd 2018. These groups return armed den sana be accused of vandalizing over eighteen banks insyd de Oromia region plus no clear punitive measures from de government. Large-scale killings of de Amhara have been carry out by de same group since then. Motives of de perpetrators vary from location to location— ethnic origin, religious origin, or both. Insyd de Gimbi massacres, de name list indicate dat the majority of de victims were Muslim Amhara. Reports cover dat those who hide insyd de mosque be surrounded den murdered. Most of de ethnic Amhara inhabitants insyd Gimbi be migrants from de Wollo Province who be resettled by de former communist government, de Derg regime, after drought den famine hit the province. Similarly, the Shashemene massacre in July 2020 demonstrated another religious motive. In dis attack, Orthodox Christians predominantly from Amhara den odas from different ethnic groups sana be targeted. On sana be oda hand, insyd De Ataye massacre den oda locations, both Muslim den Orthodox Amhara be executed den mass-buried together, despite religious differences. === De Kellem massacre === On July 4, 2022, de Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC) make calls for an urgent reinforcement of government security forces following de massacres dat occurred against de minority Amhara people insyd Kellem, which be one of de zones insyd Wollega, Oromia. De specific Amhara villages sana be known as Mender 20 den Mender 21 insyd de Hawa Gelan Woreda. Dis violence occurred inside two weeks from de June 2022 Gimbi massacre dat claim de lives of several hundred innocent Amhara. Both Kellem den Gimbi be close to each oda den be around 400 kilometers away from de capital, Addis Ababa. EHRC never disclose de number of de victims but report dat the Oromo Liberation Army (OLA) be de responsible attackers. One of de patterns dat witnesses den reports highlighted be dat communications be generally down insyd de areas where killings be carried out, wey indicate possible coordination rather than a coincidence. === Attacks insyd Efrata ena Gidim (Ataye area) === Reports show dat since 2018, dis become de fourth attack against de Amhara civilians insyd de Efrata ena Gidim Woreda insyd de Northern Shewa of de Amhara region dat start on 10 July 2022 den continue for several days, insyd de Arso Amboa (Zembo), den Wayena kebeles near Ataye town. De violence claim at least 17 civilian lives den many injured den hundreds displaced, along plus a siege dat lead to property damages, wey include de burning of residential homes. Many of de victims be farmers, den witnesses described de return of de violence den initiations of de attacks insyd de hot spot conflict areas by de OLA, insyd de borderline between de Oromia Zone where ethnic Oromo live insyd de Amhara region, den de local Amhara farmers. IDPs den survivors insyd Debre Berhan, Shewa Robit, Mahale Meda, den oda areas express fear for demma security for returning to demma homes. Many of them expressed dat they lost demma loved ones due to repeated attacks. Records show dat there be unresolved frequent territorial den administrative disputes between de Oromia special zone den de Amhara region insyd which de Oromo exercise autonomy since ein creation insyd 1995 by de former TPLF regime. === War insyd Amahara === Main article: War insyd Amhara § Human rights violations During de War insyd Amhara dat start insyd 2023, drone strikes insyd late 2023 mostly kill civilians, according to media reports. Insyd February 2024, e be reported dat Ethiopian troops dey kill 45 civilians insyd a massacre insyd Amhara state since late January. Insyd September 2024, de EHRC accuse federal government forces of carrying out extrajudicial killings insyd Amhara, den mass arbitrary detentions insyd de region den elsewhere. Since de beginning of de war de US based Institute Lemkin for Genocide Prevention issue a red flag alert, characterizing de mass abduction den detention of Amharas as potentially indicative of a looming genocide == Calls from various voices == Preventative measures den early warning efforts be expected to limit further ethnic-based destructions against targeted ethnic groups. De diasporas den odas insyd de country make calls to de rights, humanitarian, accountability, den oda influential groups to take action. Although de Amhara den Agew massacres have been going on for over thirty years, many expressed dat de case has not receive adequate campaign den media coverage. However, due to de scale den frequency of de attacks, progress has been observed insyd de number of reports. Despite political interest or country profile, such "marginalized" human rights cases require timely root cause assessment for de implementation of preventative measures, accountability mechanisms, den providing humanitarian needs. == References == [[Category:Massacres of Amhara people| ]] [[Category:1990s insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:2000s insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:2010s insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:2020s insyd Ethiopia]] [[Category:Discrimination insyd Ethiopia]] gm4ks5qq2tcv4hy5owo4wncjk73apg0 0 17960 67169 67096 2025-06-29T19:02:31Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67169 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. j3i7mf8diiz7h9vpexqjf1n3kb3qh66 67171 67169 2025-06-29T19:06:16Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67171 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. rtifvb4cbyrdlxna5hmthcidactnfad 67173 67171 2025-06-29T19:12:05Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67173 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. 34m9bhxogx4ek0kxqpqj9s206uy2q3a 67175 67173 2025-06-29T19:12:46Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67175 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== 3ckixleyy29bp1ydfq7ibguo6jaoqrs 67176 67175 2025-06-29T19:13:14Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Sierra Leone insyd World War II */ Improve article 67176 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II 80bxyr6ltj99g04t8n5rsqa1tbh51ji 67180 67176 2025-06-29T19:13:41Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Sierra Leone insyd World War II */ Improve article 67180 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. q9mnq7s2k6tcre0ndrt2ntv1b2lb5uj 67183 67180 2025-06-29T19:14:07Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67183 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == tk3qotncf0e680m72v2d3znesrqwu57 67184 67183 2025-06-29T19:16:05Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* 1960 Independence Conference */ Improve article 67184 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. tsfru4ye543vrtsmcsqan7jlg97cbmp 67185 67184 2025-06-29T19:19:35Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* 1960 Independence Conference */ Improve article 67185 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). fbh2tiukm2g73tidelqn0p17bqq0i7i 67186 67185 2025-06-29T19:20:09Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67186 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == 9k0446oqni64aa3gctjnvn6w2y2qj9j 67187 67186 2025-06-29T19:22:30Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Opposition to de SLPP government */ Improve article 67187 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. j0spe1205a7jbf8xb0z36obyibaqad3 67188 67187 2025-06-29T19:23:02Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67188 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == j52pxiz2jnfwoo0q1ern6jhkml7vrqw 67189 67188 2025-06-29T19:23:25Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Early independence (1961–1968) */ Improve article 67189 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) 007k8z02yxg0fpc20o17nv153ci9u8y 67190 67189 2025-06-29T19:23:50Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Early independence (1961–1968) */ Improve article 67190 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== 68a4sq38yw02ur1c9w1ugjyfiwkp1hi 67192 67190 2025-06-29T19:25:49Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964) */ Improve article 67192 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. els6p31ve34mcmmrvbfkfafg0gb7nwm 67199 67192 2025-06-29T19:28:33Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964) */ Improve article 67199 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. d7uc6ogrjrvdafkfly30z9ik672iemd 67201 67199 2025-06-29T19:29:11Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Early independence (1961–1968) */ Improve article 67201 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== ixvafd3611ukbdtd0r0ki6ib69bnmak 67202 67201 2025-06-29T19:32:24Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967) */ Improve article 67202 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. t2onuctjao5t7qcjgtjxq53vm9uhccd 67203 67202 2025-06-29T20:05:07Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967) */ Improve article 67203 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group 1n79hd6q07onyduk3s5ef8ds650dj8p 67204 67203 2025-06-29T20:45:47Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67204 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. 9movrki3jr62xq4r20irbuptiboyhpy 67205 67204 2025-06-29T20:47:18Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67205 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== 7k05hkb6hhs3gyfv0o0ry7t5jvfqe7f 67206 67205 2025-06-29T20:54:28Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Three military coups (1967–1968) */ Improve article 67206 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. 12cgtw3sb9uhe3wcm7eijs76km2bwmr 67207 67206 2025-06-29T20:55:24Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67207 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == ft4dcb9nk5cvk55x2az5w2asg1sjrjo 67208 67207 2025-06-29T21:00:18Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) */ Improve article 67208 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. g6u8mcbx64oj0jcm25raezb8fbjb22b 67209 67208 2025-06-29T21:03:16Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) */ Improve article 67209 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. n94k9cez5uzm4xuws5f7fanq9lyacff 67210 67209 2025-06-29T21:05:03Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) */ Improve article 67210 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. auf7qznxd8vtserd2xr4ten5s3n4pvo 67211 67210 2025-06-29T21:08:45Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67211 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. onnmzzlibxomac3o7fbfuf9yjye8vlk 67213 67211 2025-06-29T21:11:28Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67213 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. lcyd06a8ydxd08mxqa21q9cfz4wclac 67214 67213 2025-06-29T21:13:00Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67214 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. fof823s2d40fun1boq8l6lbtsq8282p 67215 67214 2025-06-29T21:21:56Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67215 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. szg9vioydlvkgs5s7rwbkpjdo0yvsje 67216 67215 2025-06-29T21:24:11Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67216 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. 3af3axwdw5619hgh3dvur2ov4its4ob 67217 67216 2025-06-29T21:25:47Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67217 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. tqoiazcrszga6086h8fxxmbc2wybq6e 67219 67217 2025-06-29T21:30:01Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67219 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. 5dzcuwodb7oyp4qqcko7n7mw1os3ea2 67221 67219 2025-06-29T21:32:55Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67221 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. anbtaojf3f55pr1wsusysw5em2v8tyc 67223 67221 2025-06-29T21:36:18Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67223 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. j7i52uhlyf2itx6vw7gxoqtgia7yuih 67225 67223 2025-06-29T21:37:53Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67225 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. 31go5slmhvc188fkeece7rl0l8vdr3w 67229 67225 2025-06-29T21:40:09Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67229 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. 4z7szumu6sm55er2dxpeph9lmhk3egn 67231 67229 2025-06-29T21:40:39Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67231 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == syisw92mjcwyxb855qsrxleabcsgxa4 67237 67231 2025-06-29T21:42:32Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) */ Improve article 67237 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. os5qujmmsoi7fia6aw6fk5wuu61chzc 67240 67237 2025-06-29T21:44:27Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) */ Improve article 67240 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. nccsnbwhyc89jbfb5prxg699evwvt26 67241 67240 2025-06-29T21:46:34Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) */ Improve article 67241 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. 8243zdigv3s9kht53qpm5qi4yyptowi 67242 67241 2025-06-29T21:48:18Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) */ Improve article 67242 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. p30flnlld6qvkajixa8nx3hn2mmxqrb 67243 67242 2025-06-29T21:49:02Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) */ Improve article 67243 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. 3fqdnsl7gircfnubjkovk295v2fkyuj 67245 67243 2025-06-29T21:49:40Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67245 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. == Civil war (1991–2002) == 0n5tf6rl7r25v0dt645tyze74xt54w4 67246 67245 2025-06-29T21:52:02Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67246 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. == Civil war (1991–2002) == Main article: Sierra Leone Civil War 430htypr3nmqblg8sh1ixgcnwytizmi 67249 67246 2025-06-29T21:56:44Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Civil war (1991–2002) */ Improve article 67249 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. == Civil war (1991–2002) == Main article: Sierra Leone Civil War De brutal civil wardysneighbouring Liberia play an undeniable role insyd de outbreak of fighting insyd Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—leader of de National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly help form de Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under de command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Sankoh, a critic of both de Stevens den Momoh administrations. Sankoh had been an ally of Brigadier General Bangura den be among those who mutinied following Bangura ein execution. Sankoh be British-trained den had undergone guerrilla training insyd Libya. Taylor ein aim was for de RUF to attack de bases of Nigerian-dominated peacekeeping troops insyd Sierra Leone who were opposed to ein rebel movement insyd Liberia. Sankoh ein RUF rebels dey enter de country insyd March 1991, den within a month controlled much of Eastern Sierra Leone, wey include de diamond-mining area insyd Kono District. De government of Sierra Leone, overwhelm by a crumbling economy den corruption, be unable to mount significant resistance. m1pztzewso0m6akmdtkkds1w067ci88 67254 67249 2025-06-29T21:59:46Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Civil war (1991–2002) */ Improve article 67254 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. == Civil war (1991–2002) == Main article: Sierra Leone Civil War De brutal civil wardysneighbouring Liberia play an undeniable role insyd de outbreak of fighting insyd Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—leader of de National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly help form de Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under de command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Sankoh, a critic of both de Stevens den Momoh administrations. Sankoh had been an ally of Brigadier General Bangura den be among those who mutinied following Bangura ein execution. Sankoh be British-trained den had undergone guerrilla training insyd Libya. Taylor ein aim was for de RUF to attack de bases of Nigerian-dominated peacekeeping troops insyd Sierra Leone who were opposed to ein rebel movement insyd Liberia. Sankoh ein RUF rebels dey enter de country insyd March 1991, den within a month controlled much of Eastern Sierra Leone, wey include de diamond-mining area insyd Kono District. De government of Sierra Leone, overwhelm by a crumbling economy den corruption, be unable to mount significant resistance. At dis time, de Momoh government be crumbling. Several senior government officials dey resign to form opposition parties, while there be suspicions dat President Momoh no be serious about political reform. Abuses of power dey continue den de APC be alleged to have been hoarding arms den planning a violent campaign against de opposition parties ahead of multi-party general elections scheduled for late 1992. De state have been unable to play civil servants, leading to de looting of government property den a population of aimless youth when schools be closed. efjyab4h827t5wcw25xy4otewi9edrj 67256 67254 2025-06-29T22:00:15Z KISUMAR123 1270 /* Civil war (1991–2002) */ Improve article 67256 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. == Civil war (1991–2002) == Main article: Sierra Leone Civil War De brutal civil wardysneighbouring Liberia play an undeniable role insyd de outbreak of fighting insyd Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—leader of de National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly help form de Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under de command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Sankoh, a critic of both de Stevens den Momoh administrations. Sankoh had been an ally of Brigadier General Bangura den be among those who mutinied following Bangura ein execution. Sankoh be British-trained den had undergone guerrilla training insyd Libya. Taylor ein aim was for de RUF to attack de bases of Nigerian-dominated peacekeeping troops insyd Sierra Leone who were opposed to ein rebel movement insyd Liberia. Sankoh ein RUF rebels dey enter de country insyd March 1991, den within a month controlled much of Eastern Sierra Leone, wey include de diamond-mining area insyd Kono District. De government of Sierra Leone, overwhelm by a crumbling economy den corruption, be unable to mount significant resistance. At dis time, de Momoh government be crumbling. Several senior government officials dey resign to form opposition parties, while there be suspicions dat President Momoh no be serious about political reform. Abuses of power dey continue den de APC be alleged to have been hoarding arms den planning a violent campaign against de opposition parties ahead of multi-party general elections scheduled for late 1992. De state have been unable to play civil servants, leading to de looting of government property den a population of aimless youth when schools be closed. ==== '''NPRC Junta (1992–1996)''' ==== qmojazk0bq1szie20ac0qm59ls5dxzq 67261 67256 2025-06-29T22:08:32Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67261 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. == Civil war (1991–2002) == Main article: Sierra Leone Civil War De brutal civil wardysneighbouring Liberia play an undeniable role insyd de outbreak of fighting insyd Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—leader of de National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly help form de Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under de command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Sankoh, a critic of both de Stevens den Momoh administrations. Sankoh had been an ally of Brigadier General Bangura den be among those who mutinied following Bangura ein execution. Sankoh be British-trained den had undergone guerrilla training insyd Libya. Taylor ein aim was for de RUF to attack de bases of Nigerian-dominated peacekeeping troops insyd Sierra Leone who were opposed to ein rebel movement insyd Liberia. Sankoh ein RUF rebels dey enter de country insyd March 1991, den within a month controlled much of Eastern Sierra Leone, wey include de diamond-mining area insyd Kono District. De government of Sierra Leone, overwhelm by a crumbling economy den corruption, be unable to mount significant resistance. At dis time, de Momoh government be crumbling. Several senior government officials dey resign to form opposition parties, while there be suspicions dat President Momoh no be serious about political reform. Abuses of power dey continue den de APC be alleged to have been hoarding arms den planning a violent campaign against de opposition parties ahead of multi-party general elections scheduled for late 1992. De state have been unable to play civil servants, leading to de looting of government property den a population of aimless youth when schools be closed. ==== '''NPRC Junta (1992–1996)''' ==== On 29 April 1992, twenty-five-year-old Captain Valentine Strasser lead a group of young Sierra Leone Army officers—wey include Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Seargent Solomon Musa, Lieutenant Tom Nyuma, Captain Komba Mondeh, Captain Julius Maada Bio den Captain Komba Kambo—from demma barracks insyd Kailahun District den launch a military coup insyd Freetown, which send President Momoh into exile insyd Guinea. De young soldiers established de National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) plus Strasser as ein chairman den Head of State of de country. Captain Solomon Musa, a close friend of Strasser den one of de leaders of de coup, become de deputy leader of de NPRC Junta. De coup be largely popular because e promise to bring peace, but de NPRC Junta immediately suspended de constitution, ban all political parties, limited freedom of speech den freedom of de press den enact a rule-by-decree policy, insyd which soldiers be granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial. De NPRC establish a Supreme Council, consisting of de highest-ranking soldiers insyd de Junta government. dltfz1taxokhkpdoudb6f7y5shx3r2b 67262 67261 2025-06-29T22:10:08Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67262 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. == Civil war (1991–2002) == Main article: Sierra Leone Civil War De brutal civil wardysneighbouring Liberia play an undeniable role insyd de outbreak of fighting insyd Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—leader of de National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly help form de Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under de command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Sankoh, a critic of both de Stevens den Momoh administrations. Sankoh had been an ally of Brigadier General Bangura den be among those who mutinied following Bangura ein execution. Sankoh be British-trained den had undergone guerrilla training insyd Libya. Taylor ein aim was for de RUF to attack de bases of Nigerian-dominated peacekeeping troops insyd Sierra Leone who were opposed to ein rebel movement insyd Liberia. Sankoh ein RUF rebels dey enter de country insyd March 1991, den within a month controlled much of Eastern Sierra Leone, wey include de diamond-mining area insyd Kono District. De government of Sierra Leone, overwhelm by a crumbling economy den corruption, be unable to mount significant resistance. At dis time, de Momoh government be crumbling. Several senior government officials dey resign to form opposition parties, while there be suspicions dat President Momoh no be serious about political reform. Abuses of power dey continue den de APC be alleged to have been hoarding arms den planning a violent campaign against de opposition parties ahead of multi-party general elections scheduled for late 1992. De state have been unable to play civil servants, leading to de looting of government property den a population of aimless youth when schools be closed. ==== '''NPRC Junta (1992–1996)''' ==== On 29 April 1992, twenty-five-year-old Captain Valentine Strasser lead a group of young Sierra Leone Army officers—wey include Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Seargent Solomon Musa, Lieutenant Tom Nyuma, Captain Komba Mondeh, Captain Julius Maada Bio den Captain Komba Kambo—from demma barracks insyd Kailahun District den launch a military coup insyd Freetown, which send President Momoh into exile insyd Guinea. De young soldiers established de National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) plus Strasser as ein chairman den Head of State of de country. Captain Solomon Musa, a close friend of Strasser den one of de leaders of de coup, become de deputy leader of de NPRC Junta. De coup be largely popular because e promise to bring peace, but de NPRC Junta immediately suspended de constitution, ban all political parties, limited freedom of speech den freedom of de press den enact a rule-by-decree policy, insyd which soldiers be granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial. De NPRC establish a Supreme Council, consisting of de highest-ranking soldiers insyd de Junta government. On de same day de NPRC Junta take power, one of de coup leaders, Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, be assassinated—reportedly by Major Sim Turay, de head of Sierra Leone Military Intelligence, den a close ally of de deposed president. A heavily armed military manhunt took place across Sierra Leone to find Turay den odas suspected to have participated insyd de assassination, forcing Turay to flee to Guinea. 974hm3s1tuucn47l2n9h06wb6q85c7z 67263 67262 2025-06-29T22:11:48Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67263 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. == Civil war (1991–2002) == Main article: Sierra Leone Civil War De brutal civil wardysneighbouring Liberia play an undeniable role insyd de outbreak of fighting insyd Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—leader of de National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly help form de Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under de command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Sankoh, a critic of both de Stevens den Momoh administrations. Sankoh had been an ally of Brigadier General Bangura den be among those who mutinied following Bangura ein execution. Sankoh be British-trained den had undergone guerrilla training insyd Libya. Taylor ein aim was for de RUF to attack de bases of Nigerian-dominated peacekeeping troops insyd Sierra Leone who were opposed to ein rebel movement insyd Liberia. Sankoh ein RUF rebels dey enter de country insyd March 1991, den within a month controlled much of Eastern Sierra Leone, wey include de diamond-mining area insyd Kono District. De government of Sierra Leone, overwhelm by a crumbling economy den corruption, be unable to mount significant resistance. At dis time, de Momoh government be crumbling. Several senior government officials dey resign to form opposition parties, while there be suspicions dat President Momoh no be serious about political reform. Abuses of power dey continue den de APC be alleged to have been hoarding arms den planning a violent campaign against de opposition parties ahead of multi-party general elections scheduled for late 1992. De state have been unable to play civil servants, leading to de looting of government property den a population of aimless youth when schools be closed. ==== '''NPRC Junta (1992–1996)''' ==== On 29 April 1992, twenty-five-year-old Captain Valentine Strasser lead a group of young Sierra Leone Army officers—wey include Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Seargent Solomon Musa, Lieutenant Tom Nyuma, Captain Komba Mondeh, Captain Julius Maada Bio den Captain Komba Kambo—from demma barracks insyd Kailahun District den launch a military coup insyd Freetown, which send President Momoh into exile insyd Guinea. De young soldiers established de National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) plus Strasser as ein chairman den Head of State of de country. Captain Solomon Musa, a close friend of Strasser den one of de leaders of de coup, become de deputy leader of de NPRC Junta. De coup be largely popular because e promise to bring peace, but de NPRC Junta immediately suspended de constitution, ban all political parties, limited freedom of speech den freedom of de press den enact a rule-by-decree policy, insyd which soldiers be granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial. De NPRC establish a Supreme Council, consisting of de highest-ranking soldiers insyd de Junta government. On de same day de NPRC Junta take power, one of de coup leaders, Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, be assassinated—reportedly by Major Sim Turay, de head of Sierra Leone Military Intelligence, den a close ally of de deposed president. A heavily armed military manhunt took place across Sierra Leone to find Turay den odas suspected to have participated insyd de assassination, forcing Turay to flee to Guinea. De NPRC Junta fight de RUF rebels, recapture most of de RUF-held territories, den push de rebels back to de border plus Liberia. De NPRC Junta maintain relations plus de Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) den strengthen support for Sierra Leone–based ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) troops fighting insyd Liberia. 9tc20v0j20z02de6yv37gctr51x6exi 67324 67263 2025-06-30T11:55:37Z KISUMAR123 1270 Improve article 67324 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Sierra Leone''' first become inhabited by indigenous African peoples at least 2,500 years ago. De Limba be de first tribe known to inhabit Sierra Leone. De dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de region from oda West African cultures, den e become a refuge for peoples escaping violence. Sierra Leone was named by Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra, who map de region insyd 1462. De Freetown estuary provided a good natural harbour for ships to shelter den replenish drinking water, den gain more international attention as coastal den trans-Atlantic trade supplanted trans-Saharan trade. Insyd de mid-16th century, de Mane people invaded, subjugated nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples, den militarised Sierra Leone. De Mane soon blended plus de local populations den de various chiefdoms den kingdoms remain insyd a continual state of conflict, plus many captives sold to European slave-traders. De Atlantic slave trade had a significant impact on Sierra Leone, as dis trade flourished insyd de 17th den 18th centuries, den later as a centre of anti-slavery efforts when de trade be abolished insyd 1807. British abolitionists had organised a colony for Black Loyalists at Freetown, den dis become de capital of British West Africa. A naval squadron was base there to intercept slave ships, den de colony quickly grew as Liberated Africans be released, join by Afro-Caribbean den African soldiers who had fought for Britain insyd de American Revolutionary War. De descendants of de black settlers be collectively referred to as de Creoles or Krios. During de colonial era, de British den Creoles increased demma control over de surrounding area, securing peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted, suppressing slave-trading den inter-chiefdom war. Insyd 1895, Britain draw borders for Sierra Leone which they declare to be demma protectorate, leading to armed resistance den de Hut Tax War of 1898. Thereafter, there demma dissent den reforms as de Creoles sought political rights, trade unions form against colonial employers, den peasants sought greater justice from demma chiefs. Sierra Leone has played a significant part insyd modern African political liberty den nationalism. Insyd de 1950s, a new constitution united de Crown Colony den Protectorate, which had previously been governed separately. Sierra Leone gain independence from de United Kingdom on 27 April 1961 den became a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Ethnic den linguistic divisions remain an obstacle to national unity, plus de Mende, Temne den Creoles as rival power blocs. Roughly half of de years since independence have been marked by autocratic governments or civil war. == Early history == Archaeological finds show dat Sierra Leone has been inhabited continuously for at least 2,500 years, populate by successive movements of peoples from oda parts of Africa. De use of iron be introduced to Sierra Leone by de 9th century, den by de end of de 10th century agriculture was being practiced by coastal tribes. Sierra Leone ein dense tropical rainforest partially isolated de land from oda African cultures den from de spread of Islam. Dis make e a refuge for people escaping subjugation by de Sahelian kingdoms, violence den jihads. European contacts plus Sierra Leone be among de first insyd West Africa. Insyd 1462, Portuguese explorer Pedro de Sintra mapped de hills surrounding what be now Freetown Harbour, naming de oddly shaped formation ''Serra Lyoa'' (Lioness Mountain). At dis time de country be inhabited by numerous politically independent native groups. Several different languages be spoken, but there was similarity of religion. Insyd de coastal rainforest belt there be Bulom-speakers between de Sherbro den Freetown estuaries, Loko-speakers north of de Freetown estuary to de Little Scarcies River, Temne-speakers find at de mouth of de Scarcies River, den Limba-speakers farther up de Scarcies. Insyd de hilly savannah north of all of these lands be de Susu den Fula tribes. De Susu trade regularly plus de coastal peoples along river valley routes, bringing salt, clothes woven by de Fula, iron work, den gold. == European contact (15th century) == Portuguese ships begin visiting Sierra Leone regularly insyd de late 15th century, den for a while they maintained a fort on de north shore of de Freetown estuary. Dis estuary be one of de largest natural deep-water harbours insyd de world, den one of de few good harbours on West Africa ein surf-battered "Windward Shore" (Liberia to Senegal). E soon become a favourite destination of European mariners, to shelter den replenish drinking water. Some of de Portuguese sailors stay permanently, trading den intermarrying plus de local people. ==== '''Slavery''' ==== Slavery, den insyd particular de Atlantic slave trade, had a great effect on de region—socially, economically den politically—from de late 15th to de mid-19th centuries. There had been lucrative trans-Saharan trade of slaves insyd West Africa from de 6th century. At ein peak (c. 1350) de Mali Empire surrounded de region of modern-day Sierra Leone den Liberia, though de slave trade may not have significantly penetrated de coastal rainforest. De peoples who migrate into Sierra Leone from dis time will have had greater contact plus de indigenous slave trade, either practicing it or escaping it. When Europeans first arrive at Sierra Leone, slavery among de African peoples of de area be believe to be rare. According to historian Walter Rodney, de Portuguese mariners keep detailed reports, den so e be likely if slavery had been an important local institution dat de reports will have described it. There be mention of a very particular kind of slavery insyd de region, which was:<blockquote>a person insyd trouble insyd one kingdom can go to anoda den place himself under de protection of ein king, whereupon he become a "slave" of dat king, obliged to provide free labour den liable for sale.</blockquote>According to Rodney, such a person will likely have retain some rights den had some opportunity to rise insyd status as time passed. De European colonization of de Americas soon lead to labor demands from nascent colonies; dis lead Europeans to seek a supply of slaves to transport to de Americas. Initially, European slavers launch raids on coastal villages to abduct Africans den sell them into slavery. However, they soon establish economic alliances plus local leaders, as many chiefs were willing to sell undesirable members of demma tribe to Europeans. Oda African chiefs launch raids on rival tribes insyd order to sell captives of such raids into slavery. Dis early slaving essentially be an export business. De use of slaves as labourers by de local Africans appears to have developed only later. E may first have occurred under coastal chiefs insyd de late 18th century:<blockquote><blockquote>De slave owners originally be white den foreigners, but de late eighteenth century see de emergence of powerful slave-trading chiefs, be said to own large numbers of 'domestic slaves'.</blockquote>For example, insyd de late 18th century, William Cleveland, a Scottish leader insyd Africa had a large "slave town" on de mainland opposite de Banana Islands, whose inhabitants "be employed insyd cultivating extensive rice fields, describe as being some of the largest insyd Africa at de time". De existence of an indigenous slave town be recorded by an English traveler insyd 1823. Known insyd de Fula language as a ''rounde'', e be connected plus de Sulima Susu ein capital city, Falaba. Ein inhabitants work at farming.</blockquote>Rodney dey postulate two means by which slaving for export can have caused a local practice of using slaves for labour to develop: <blockquote> # Not all war captives offer for sale will have been bought by de Portuguese, so demma captors had to find something else to do plus them. Rodney believe dat executing them be rare den that they will have been used for local labour. # There be a time lag between de time a slave be captured den de time he or she be sold. Thus there will often have been a pool of slaves awaiting sale, who will have been put to work.</blockquote>There be possible additional reasons for de adoption of slavery by de locals to meet demma labour requirements: # De Europeans provided an example for imitation. # Once slaving insyd any form be accepted, e may smash a moral barrier to exploitation den make ein adoption insyd oda forms seem a relatively minor matter. # Export slaving entailed de construction of a coercive apparatus which could have been subsequently turned to other ends, such as policing a captive labour force. # De sale of local produce (e.g., palm kernels) to Europeans opened a new sphere of economic activity. Insyd particular, e dey create an increased demand for agricultural labour. Slavery be a way of mobilising an agricultural work force. Dis local African slavery be much less harsh den brutal than de slavery practiced by Europeans on, for example, de plantations of the United States, de West Indies, den Brazil. De local slavery has been described by anthropologist M. McCulloch:<blockquote><blockquote>Slaves be housed close to de fresh tracts of land they clear for demma masters. They be considered part of de household of demma owner, den enjoyed limited rights. E no be customary to sell them except for a serious offense, such as adultery plus de wife of a freeman. Small plots of land be given to them for demma own use, den they might retain de proceeds of crops they grow on these plots; by dis means e be possible for a slave to become de owner of anoda slave. Sometimes a slave marry insyd de household of ein master den rose to a position of trust; there be an instance of a slave taking charge of a chiefdom during de minority of de heir. Descendants of slaves often be practically indistinguishable from freemen.</blockquote>Slaves sometimes be sent on errands outside de kingdoms of demma masters den return voluntarily. Speaking specifically of de era around 1700, historian Christopher Fyfe relates dat, "Slaves not taken insyd war usually be criminals. Insyd coastal areas, at least, e be rare for anyone to be sold without being charged plus a crime." Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section be still present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describes a typical variety:<blockquote></blockquote>Voluntary dependence reminiscent of dat describe insyd de early Portuguese documents mention at de beginning of dis section still be present insyd de 19th century. E be called ''pawning''; Arthur Abraham describe a typical variety:<blockquote>A freeman heavily insyd debt, den facing de threat of de punishment of being sold, will approach a wealthier man or chief plus a plea to pay off ein debts 'while I sit on your lap'. Or he can give a son or some oda dependent of ein 'to be for you', de wealthy man or chief. Dis insyd effect mean dat de person so pawn be automatically reduce to a position of dependence, den if he be never redeemed, he or ein children eventually become part of de master ein extended family. By dis time, de children practically be indistinguishable from de real children of de master, since they grow up regarding one anoda as brothers.</blockquote>Some observers consider de term "slave" to be more misleading than informative when describing de local practice. Abraham say dat insyd most cases, "subject, servant, client, serf, pawn, dependent, or retainer" will be more accurate. Domestic slavery be abolished insyd Sierra Leone insyd 1928. McCulloch reports dat at dat time, amongst Sierra Leone ein largest present-day ethnolinguistic group, de Mende, who then had about 560,000 people, about 15 per cent of de population (i.e., 84,000 people) be domestic slaves. He sana say dat "singularly little change followed de 1928 decree; a fair number of slaves return to demma original homes, but de great majority remain insyd de villages insyd which demma former masters had placed them or demma parents."<blockquote></blockquote>Export slavery remain a major business insyd Sierra Leone from de late 15th century to de mid-19th century. According to Fyfe, "e be estimated insyd 1789 dat 74,000 slaves be exported annually from West Africa, about 38,000 by British firms." Insyd 1788, a proslavery European name Matthews estimated de annual total export from between de Nunez River (110 km north of Sierra Leone) den de Sherbro as 3,000. Participation insyd de Atlantic slave trade gradually be outlawed by various Western nations, beginning plus de United States den Britain insyd 1808.</blockquote> == Mane invasions (16th century) == Further information: Mane people De Mane invasions of de mid-16th century had a profound impact on Sierra Leone. De Mane (sana call Mani) be members of de Mande language group. A warrior people, well-armed den well-organized, they live east den somewhat north of present-day Sierra Leone. Sometime insyd de early 16th century they begin moving south. According to some Mane who dey speak to a Portuguese writer (Dornelas) in de late 16th century, demma travels dey begin as a result of de expulsion of demma chief from de imperial city of Mandimansa, demma homeland. There be conflicting accounts among historians of how these invasions happened. Some historians place demma first arrival at de coast east of Sierra Leone, at least as far as de River Cess den likely pppie. They advanced northwest along de coast toward Sierra Leone, conquering as they go. Odas contend dat they arrive on de coast near Sherbro Island. They incorporate large numbers of de people they conquered into demma army, plus de result dat de rank den file consist mostly of coastal peoples, while de Mane be ein commanding group. By 1545, de Mane dey reach Cape Mount. Dema conquest of Sierra Leone occupy de ensuing 15 to 20 years, den result insyd de subjugation of all or nearly all of de indigenous coastal peoples—who be known collectively as de Sapes—as far north as de Scarcies. De present demographics of Sierra Leone largely be a reflection of these two decades. De degree to which de Mane supplanted de original inhabitants vary from place to place. De Temne partly withstood de Mane onslaught, den keep demma language, but become ruled by a line of Mane kings. De present-day Loko den Mende be de result of a more complete submersion of de original culture: demma languages be similar, den both essentially Mande. Dis likely be due to conquest by de Mane invaders. === '''Aftermath''' === De Mane invasions militarised Sierra Leone. De Sapes had been un-warlike, but after de invasions, right until de late 19th century, bows, shields, den knives of de Mane type dey become ubiquitous insyd Sierra Leone, as had de Mane battle technique of using squadrons of archers fighting insyd formation, carrying de large-style shields. Villages become fortified. De usual method of erecting two or three concentric palisades, each 4–7 metres (12–20 ft) high, create a formidable obstacle to attackers—especially since, as some of de English observe insyd de 19th century, de thigh-thick logs planted insyd de earth to make de palisades often take root at de bottom den grow foliage at de top, so dat de defenders occupy a living wall of wood. A British officer who dey observe one of these fortifications around de time of de 1898 Hut Tax war ended ein description of it thus:<blockquote>No one who dey no see these fences can realize de immense strength of them. De outer fence at Hahu I measure insyd several places, den found e to be from 2 to 3 feet thick, den most of de logs, or rather trees, of which e be formed, had taken root den be throwing out leaves den shoots.</blockquote>He sana say dat English artillery can not penetrate all three fences. At dat time, at least among de Mende, "a typical settlement dey consist of walled towns den open villages or towns surrounding it." After de invasions, de Mane sub-chiefs among whom e country dey divide begin fighting among themselves. Dis pattern of activity become permanent: even after de Mane dey blend plus de indigenous population—a process which be completed insyd de early 17th century—de various kingdoms insyd Sierra Leone remain insyd a fairly continual state of flux den conflict. Rodney believe dat a desire to take prisoners to sell as slaves to de Europeans be a major motivation to dis fighting, den may even have been a driving force behind de original Mane invasions. Historian Kenneth Little dey conclude dat de principal objective insyd de local wars, at least among de Mende, be plunder, not de acquisition of territory. Abraham cautions dat slave trading should not be exaggerated as a cause: de Africans have demma own reasons to fight, plus territorial den political ambitions present. Motivations likely change over time during de 350-year period. De wars themselves no be exceptionally deadly. Set-piece battles be rare, den de fortified towns so strong dat demma capture seldom be attempted. Often de fighting dey consist of small ambushes. Insyd these years, de political system be such dat each large village along plus ein satellite villages den settlements will be headed by a chief. De chief will have a private army of warriors. Sometimes several chiefs will group themselves into a confederacy, acknowledging one of themselves as king (or high chief). Each pay de king fealty. If one be attacked, de king will come to ein aid, den de king can adjudicate local disputes. Despite demma many political divisions, de people of de country be united by cultural similarity. One component of dis be de Poro, an organisation common to many different kingdoms den ethnolinguistic groups. De Mende claim to be ein originators, den there be nothing to contradict dis. Possibly they import it. De Temne claim to dey import it from de Sherbro or Bulom. De Dutch geographer Olfert Dapper know of it insyd de 17th century. E often be described as a "secret society", dis partly be true: ein rites be closed to non-members, den what happens insyd de "Poro bush" never be disclosed. However, ein membership be very broad: among de Mende, almost all men, den some women, be initiates. Insyd recent years e no dey (as far as is known) have a central organisation: autonomous chapters exist for each chiefdom or village. However, it is said dat insyd pre-Protectorate days there be a "Grand Poro" plus cross-chiefdom powers of making war den peace. E widely be agreed dat e has a restraining influence on de powers of de chiefs. Headed by a fearsome principal spirit, de ''Gbeni'', e plays a major role insyd de rite of passage of males from puberty to manhood. E imparts some education. Insyd some areas, e have supervisory powers over trade, den de banking system, which use iron bars as a medium of exchange. E no only be de important society insyd Sierra Leone: de ''Sande'' be a female-only analogue of it; there sana be de ''Humoi'' which regulates sex, den de ''Njayei'' den de ''Wunde''. De ''Kpa'' be a healing-arts collegium. Besides de political impact, there be economic effects as well: trade plus de interior be interrupted, den thousands be sold as slaves to de Europeans. Insyd industry, a flourishing tradition insyd fine ivory carving be ended; however, improved ironworking techniques be introduced.<blockquote></blockquote> == 1600–1787 == By de 17th century, Portuguese colonialism insyd West Africa begin to wane, den insyd Sierra Leone oda European colonial powers such as de English den Dutch begin to supplant demma influence insyd de region. Insyd 1628, a group of English merchants had established a factory insyd de vicinity of Sherbro Island, about 50 km (30 mi) south-east from present-day Freetown. Insyd addition to ivory den slaves, de merchants at de factory sana trade insyd camwood, a type of hard timber. De Portuguese missionary Baltasar Barreira minister insyd Sierra Leone until 1610. Jesuits, den later insyd de century, Capuchins, continue de mission. By 1700 it had closed, although priests occasionally visited. Insyd 1663, de Royal African Company (RAC) be granted a royal charter from Charles II of England den soon established a factory on Sherbro Island den Tasso Island. During de Second Anglo-Dutch War, both factories be sacked by a Dutch Navy force insyd 1664. De factory be rebuilt, though e be sacked again by de French Navy during de War of de Spanish Succession insyd 1704 den pirates insyd 1719 den 1720. After de Dutch raid on de RAC factory at Tasso Island, e be relocated to de nearby Bunce Island, which be more defensible. De Europeans make payments, called ''Cole'', for rent, tribute, den trading rights, to de king of an area. At this time de local military advantage still be on de side of de Africans, den there be a 1714 report of a king seizing RAC goods insyd retaliation for a breach of protocol. Local Afro-Portuguese merchants often act as middlemen, de Europeans advancing them goods to trade to de local people, most often for ivory. Insyd 1728, an overly aggressive RAC governor dey unite de Africans den Afro-Portuguese insyd hostility to him; they burn down de Bunce Island fort den e no be rebuilt until about 1750. During de time dat de Royal African Company be operating, de firm of Grant, Sargent [Wikidata] den Oswald provisioned de trading stations. When de RAC abandoned Bunce Island, Sargent den ein partners purchase ein factory insyd 1748, repair it, den dey use it to trade insyd timber. They expand to Batts, Bobs, Tasso, den Tumbu Islands den along de banks of de river, eventually becoming involve insyd de slave trade. De French sack it again insyd 1779, during de American Revolutionary War. During de 17th century de Temne ethnolinguistic group be expanding. Around 1600, a Mani still dey rule de Loko kingdom (de area north of Port Loko Creek) den anoda rule de upper part of de south shore of de Freetown estuary. De north shore of de estuary be under a Ballom king, den de area just east of Freetown on de peninsula be held by a non-Mani plus a European name, Dom Phillip de Leon (who may have been a subordinate to ein Mani neighbour). By de mid-17th century dis situation dey change: Temne, not Bullom dey speak on de south shore, den ships stopping for water den firewood had to pay customs to de Temne king of Bureh who live at Bagos town on de point between de Rokel River den Port Loko Creek. (De king may consider himself a Mani—to dis day, Temne chiefs have Mani-derived titles—but ein people be Temne. De Bureh king insyd place insyd 1690 be called Bai Tura, ''Bai'' being a Mani form.) De Temne thus dey expand insyd a wedge toward de sea at Freetown, den now dey separate de Bulom to de north from de Mani den oda Mande-speakers to de south den east. Insyd dis period there be several reports of women occupying high positions. De king of de south shore use to leave one of ein wives to rule when he be absent, den insyd de Sherbro there be female chiefs. Insyd de early 18th century, a Bulom dey name Seniora Maria make ein own town near Cape Sierra Leone. During de 17th century, Muslim Fula from de Upper Niger den Senegal rivers move into an area called Fouta Djallon (or Futa Jalon) insyd de mountainous region north of present-day Sierra Leone. They be to have an important impact on de peoples of Sierra Leone because they increase trade den sana produced secondary population movements insyd Sierra Leone. Though de Muslim Fula first cohabited peaceably plus de peoples already at Fouta Djallon, around 1725 they embark on a war of domination, forcing de migration of many Susu, Yalunka, den non-Muslim Fula. Susu—some already convert to Islam—come south insyd Sierra Leone, insyd turn displacing Limba from north-west Sierra Leone den driving them insyd north-central Sierra Leone where they continue to live. Some Susu move as far south as de Temne town of Port Loko, only 60 km (37 mi) upriver from de Atlantic. Eventually a Muslim Susu family dey call Senko supplanted de town ein Temne rulers. Oda Susu dey move westward from Fouta Djallon, eventually dominating de Baga, Bulom, den Temne north of de Scarcies River. De Yalunka insyd Fouta Djallon first accept Islam, then reject it den be driven out. They go into north-central Sierra Leone den founded demma capital at Falaba insyd de mountains near de source of de Rokel. E still not an important town, about 20 km (12 mi) south of de Guinea border. Oda Yalunka go somewhat farther south den settled amongst de Koranko, Kissi, den Limba. Besides these groups, who be more-or-less unwilling emigrants, a considerable variety of Muslim adventurers go forth from Fouta Djallon. A Fula called Fula Mansa (''mansa'' meaning ''king'') become ruler of de Yoni country 100 km (62 mi) east of present-day Freetown. Some of ein Temne subjects fled south to de Banta country between de middle reaches of de Bagu den Jong rivers, where they become known as de Mabanta Temne. Insyd 1652, de first slaves from Sierra Leone be transported to North America; they be sold to white plantation owners insyd de Sea Islands off de coast of de American South. During de 18th century, numerous slaves from Bunce Island be transported to de Southern Colonies, due insyd part to de business relationship between American slave trader Henry Laurens den de London-based firm of Grant, Sargent, Oswald & Company, which oversaw a thriving slave trade from Bunce Island insyd Sierra Leone to North America. De transatlantic slave trade continued to transport millions of enslaved Africans, wey include those from Sierra Leone, across de Atlantic during de 17th, 18th den 19th centuries; ultimately, roughly 12.5 million slaves where e dey bring to de Americas dis way. However, de rise of abolitionist movements insyd de Western world insyd de late 18th den early 19th centuries dey lead to various European den American governments passing legislation to abolish de slave trade. De slave trade insyd Sierra Leone undergo a marked decline during de 19th century, though domestic slavery will persist until de 20th century. == De Province of Freedom (1787–1789) == Main article: Granville Town, Province of Freedom ==== '''Conception of''' '''de Province of Freedom (1787)''' ==== Insyd 1787, a plan be established to settle some of London ein "Black Poor" insyd Sierra Leone insyd what was called the "Province of Freedom". This was organised by the Committee for de Relief of de Black Poor, found by British abolitionist Granville Sharp, which preferred it as a solution to continuing to financially support them insyd London. Many of de Black Poor be African Americans, who had been given demma freedom after seeking refuge with the British Army during the American Revolution, but also included other West Indian, African and Asian inhabitants of London. De Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme be proposed by entomologist Henry Smeathman den draw interest from humanitarians like Granville Sharp saw it as a means of showing de pro-slavery lobby dat black people can contribute towards de running of de new colony of Sierra Leone. Government officials soon become involved insyd de scheme as well, although demma interest be spurred by de possibility of resettling a large group of poor citizens elsewhere. William Pitt de Younger, prime minister den leader of de Tory party, dey have an active interest insyd de Scheme, because he see it as a means to repatriate de Black Poor to Africa, since "e be necessary they should be sent somewhere, den be no longer suffer to infest de streets of London". ==== '''Establishment, destruction''' '''den re-establishment (1789)''' ==== De area be first settled by 400 formerly enslaved Black Britons, who dey arrive off de coast of Sierra Leone on 15 May 1787, dey accompany by some English tradesmen. They established de Province of Freedom or Granville Town on land purchase from local Koya Temne subchief King Tom den regent Naimbanna II, a purchase which de Europeans understand to cede de land to de new settlers "for ever". De established arrangement between Europeans den de Koya Temne do not include provisions for permanent settlement, den some historians question how well de Koya leaders understand de agreement. Half of de settlers insyd de new colony die insyd de first year. Several black settlers dey start working for local slave traders. De settlers dat dey remain forcibly captured land from a local African chieftain, but he retaliate, attacking de settlement, which be reduced to a mere 64 settlers comprising 39 black men, 19 black women, den six white women. Black settlers be captured by unscrupulous traders den sold as slaves, den de remaining colonists be forced to arm themselves for demma own protection. King Tom ein successor King Jemmy dey attack den burn de colony insyd 1789. Alexander Falconbridge be sent to Sierra Leone insyd 1791 to collect de remaining Black Poor settlers, den they re-establish Granville Town (later renamed Cline Town) near Fourah Bay. Although these 1787 settlers do not establish Freetown, which be founded insyd 1792, de bicentennial of Freetown be celebrated insyd 1987. After establishing Granville Town, disease den hostility from de indigenous people eliminated de first group of colonists den destroyed demma settlement. A second Granville Town established by 64 remaining black den white 'Old settlers' under de leadership of St. George Bay Company leader, Alexander Falconbridge den de St. George Bay Company. Dis settlement be different from de Freetown settlement den colony founded insyd 1792 by Lt. John Clarkson den de Nova Scotian Settlers under de auspices of de Sierra Leone Company. == Freetown Colony (1792–1808) == '''Conception of tde Freetown settlement (1791)''' De basis for de Freetown Colony begin insyd 1791 plus Thomas Peters, an African American who had served insyd de Black Pioneers den settle insyd Nova Scotia as part of de Black Loyalist migration. Peters travel to England insyd 1791 to report grievances of de Black Loyalists who had been given poor land den faced discrimination. Peters meet plus British abolitionists den de directors of de Sierra Leone Company. He learn of de company ein plan for a new settlement at Sierra Leone. De directors be eager to allow de Nova Scotians to build a settlement there; de London-based den newly create Company had decided to create a new colony but before Peters ein arrival have no colonists. Lieutenant John Clarkson be sent to Nova Scotia to register immigrants to take to Sierra Leone for de purpose of starting a new settlement. Clarkson worked plus Peters to recruit 1,196 former American slaves from free African communities around Nova Scotia such as Birchtown. Most dey escape Virginia den South Carolina plantations. Some had been born insyd Africa before being enslaved den taken to America. ==== '''Settlement by Nova Scotians (1792)''' ==== De settlers dey sail insyd 15 ships from Halifax, Nova Scotia den arrived insyd St. George Bay between 26 February den 9 March 1792. Sixty-four settlers died en route to Sierra Leone, den even Lieutenant Clarkson be ill during de voyage. Upon reaching Sierra Leone, Clarkson den some of de Nova Scotian 'captains' "despatched on shore to clear or make roadway for demma landing". De Nova Scotians be to build Freetown on de former site of de first Granville Town which have become a "jungle" since ein destruction insyd 1789. (Though they built Freetown on Granville Town ein former site, demma settlement be no a rebirth of Granville Town, which had been re-established at Fourah Bay in 1791 by de remaining Old Settlers.) Clarkson told de men to clear de land until they reach a large cotton tree. After this difficult work had been done den de land cleared, all de settlers, men den women, disembarked den marched towards de thick forest den to de cotton tree, den demma preachers (all African Americans) begin singing: <blockquote>Awake den Sing Of Moses den de Lamb Wake! every heart den every tongue' To praise de Saviour ein name De day of Jubilee be come; Return ye ransomed sinners home</blockquote>On 11 March 1792, Nathaniel Gilbert, a white preacher, dey pray den preach a sermon under de large Cotton Tree, den Reverend David George dey preach de first recorded Baptist service insyd Africa. De land be dedicated den christened 'Free Town' according to de instructions of de Sierra Leone Company Directors. Dis be de first thanksgiving service insyd de newly christened Free Town den be de beginning of de political entity of Sierra Leone. Later, John Clarkson will be sworn insyd as de first governor of Sierra Leone. Small huts be erected before de rainy season. De Sierra Leone Company surveyors den de settlers built Freetown on de American grid pattern, plus parallel streets den wide roads, plus de largest being Water Street. On 24 August 1792, de Black Poor or Old Settlers of de second Granville Town be incorporated into de new Sierra Leone Colony but remain at Granville Town. E survive being pillaged by de French insyd 1794, den be rebuilt by de Nova Scotian settlers. By 1798, Freetown had 300–400 houses plus architecture resembling dat of de American South, plus 3- to 4-foot stone foundations den wooden superstructures. Eventually dis style of housing (brought by de Nova Scotians) will be de model for de 'bod oses' of demma Creole descendants. === '''Settlement by Jamaican Maroons (1800)''' === Insyd 1800, de Nova Scotians rebel den e be de arrival of over 500 Jamaican Maroons which dey cause de rebellion to be suppressed. Thirty-four Nova Scotians be banished den sent to either to Sherbro Island or a penal colony at Gore. Some of these eventually be allowed back insyd Freetown. Following demma capture of de rebels, de Maroons be granted de land of de Nova Scotian rebels. Eventually de Jamaican Maroons insyd Sierra Leone have demma own district at de newly named Maroon Town. De Maroons be a free community of blacks from Cudjoe ein Town (Trelawny Town) who have been resettled insyd Nova Scotia after surrendering to de British government dey follow de Second Maroon War of 1795–6. They have petitioned de British government for settlement elsewhere due to de climate insyd Nova Scotia. ==== '''Abolition and slaves-insyd-transit (1807 - 1830s)''' ==== Britain outlawed de slave trade throughout ein empire on 29 March 1807 plus de Slave Trade Act 1807, though de practice continue insyd de British Empire until e finally be abolished insyd de 1830s. De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron operating from Freetown take active measures to intercept den seize ships participating insyd de illegal Atlantic slave trade. De slaves dat dey hold on these vessels be released into Freetown den initially be called 'Captured negroes', 'Recaptives' or 'Liberated Africans'. ==== '''Formation of''' '''de Sierra Leone Creole ethnicity (1870 onwards)''' ==== De Sierra Leone Creole people (Krio: ''Krio people'') be descendants of de Black Poor, freed African Americans (Nova Scotian Black Loyalists), Afro-Caribbeans (Jamaican Maroons), den Liberated Africans who settled insyd de Western Area of Sierra Leone between 1787 den about 1885. De colony be established by de British, support by abolitionists, under de Sierra Leone Company as a place for freedmen. De settlers called demma new settlement Freetown. == Colonial era (1808–1961) == Main article: Sierra Leone Colony den Protectorate ==== '''Establishment of''' '''de British Crown Colony (1808)''' ==== Insyd 1808, e British Crown Colony of Sierra Leone be founded, plus Freetown serving as de capital of British West Africa. De city ein population expanded rapidly plus freed slaves, who dey establish suburbs on de Freetown Peninsula. They be joined by West Indian den African soldiers who dey settle insyd Sierra Leone after fighting for Britain insyd de Napoleonic Wars. '''Intervention''' '''den acquisition of de hinterland (1800s–1895)''' Insyd de early 1800s, Sierra Leone be a small colony extending a few kilometres (a few miles) up de peninsula from Freetown. De bulk of de territory dat makes up present-day Sierra Leone still be de sovereign territory of indigenous peoples such as de Mende den Temne, den be little affected by de tiny population of de Colony. Over de course of de 19th century, dat gradually changed: de British den Creoles insyd de Freetown area dey increase demma involvement insyd—den demma control over—de surrounding territory by engaging insyd trade, which be promoted den dey increase through treaty-making den military expeditions. Insyd demma treaties plus de native chiefs, de British largely be concerned plus securing local peace so dat commerce will not be interrupted. Typically, de British government dey agree to pay a chief a stipend insyd return for a commitment from him to keep de peace plus ein neighbours; oda specific commitments extract from a chief might include keeping roads open, allowing de British to collect customs duties, den submitting disputes plus ein neighbours to British adjudication. Insyd de decades following Britain ein prohibition of de slave trade insyd 1807, de treaties sometimes sana require chiefs to desist from slave-trading. Suppression of slave-trading den suppression of inter-chiefdom war dey go hand-in-hand because de trade thrived on de wars (and caused them). Thus, to de commercial reasons for pacification can be added anti-slavery ones. When friendly persuasion fail to secure demma interests, de British no be more than (to borrow Carl von Clausewitz's phrase) "continuing diplomacy by oda means". At least by de mid-1820s, de army den navy be going out from de Colony to attack chiefs whose behaviour do not conform to British dictates. Insyd 1826, Governor Turner led troops to de Bum–Kittam area, capture two stockaded towns, burn odas, den declare a blockade on de coast as far as Cape Mount. Dis partly be an anti-slaving exercise den partly to punish de chief for refusing territory to de British. Later dat year, acting-Governor Macaulay send out an expedition which go up de Jong river den dey burn Commenda, a town belonging to a related chief. Insyd 1829, de colonial authorities founded de Sierra Leone Police Corps. Insyd 1890, dis force be divided into de Civilian Police den de Frontier Police. De British develope a modus operandi wey characterised demma interventions throughout de century: army or frontier police, plus naval support if possible, will bombard a town den then usually torch it after de defenders dey fly or been defeated. Where possible, local enemies of de party being attacked be invited by de British to accompany them as allies. Further information: British den Creole intervention insyd de Sierra Leone hinterland insyd de 19th century Insyd de 1880s, Britain ein intervention insyd de hinterland dey receive added impetus because of de "Scramble for Africa": an intense competition between de European powers for territory insyd Africa. Insyd dis case, de rival be France. To forestall French incursion into what they had come to consider as demma own sphere, de British government renewed efforts to finalise a boundary agreement with France and on 1 January 1890 instructed Governor Hay insyd Sierra Leone to get from chiefs insyd de boundary area friendship treaties containing a clause forbidding them to treat plus anoda European power without British consent. Consequently, insyd 1890 den 1891 Hay den two travelling commissioners, Garrett den Alldridge, dey go on extensive tours of what be now Sierra Leone wey obtain treaties from chiefs. Most of these no be, however, treaties of cession; they be insyd de form of cooperative agreements between two sovereign powers. Insyd January 1895, a boundary agreement be signed insyd Paris, roughly fixing de line between French Guinea den Sierra Leone. De exact line be to be determined by surveyors. As Christopher Fyfe notes, "De delimitation be made almost entirely insyd geographical terms—rivers, watersheds, parallels—not political. Samu chiefdom, for instance, be divided; de people on de frontier had to opt for farms on one side or villages on de oda." More generally, de arbitrary lumping-together of disparate native peoples insyd geographical units decided by de colonial powers has been an ongoing source of trouble throughout Africa. These geographical units now dety attempt to function as nations but no be naturally nations, being composed insyd many cases of peoples who be traditional enemies. Insyd Sierra Leone, for example, de Mende, Temne den Creoles remain as rival power blocs between whom lines of fission easily emerge. '''Establishment of''' '''de British Protectorate den further land acquisition (1895)''' Insyd August 1895, an Order-in-Council dey issue insyd Britain authorising de Colony to make laws for de territory around it, extending out to de agreed-upon boundary (which corresponds closely to dat of present-day Sierra Leone). On 31 August 1896, a Proclamation dey issue insyd de Colony, wey dey declare dat territory to be a British Protectorate. De Colony remained a distinct political entity; de Protectorate dey govern from it. Most of de chiefs whose territories de Protectorate subsumed do not enter into it voluntarily. Many sign treaties of friendship plus Britain, but these be often dey express as being between sovereign powers, plus there be no subordination to de British. Only a handful of chiefs dey sign treaties of cession, den insyd some cases e be unknown if de chiefs dey understand de implications of de treaty. Insyd more remote areas, no treaties had been signed at all. De creation of de Sierra Leone Protectorate be more insyd de nature of a unilateral acquisition of territory by de British. Almost every chieftaincy insyd Sierra Leone dey respond to de British arrogation of power plus armed resistance. De Protectorate Ordinances (passed insyd de Colony insyd 1896 den 1897) abolish de title of King den replace it plus "Paramount Chief". Chiefs den kings dey formerly been selected by de leading members of dema own communities; now all chiefs, even paramount ones, can be deposed or installed at de will of de Governor, den most of de judicial powers of de chiefs be removed den given to courts presided-over by British "District Commissioners". De Governor decree dat a house tax of 5''s'' to 10''s'' be to be levied annually on every dwelling insyd de Protectorate. To de chiefs, these reductions insyd de power den prestige be unbearable. During these conflicts, British officers dey use de practice of cutting de hands of people to account for bullets spent, similar to what dey occur under de regime Leopold II of Belgium insyd de Congo Free State. British doctor, John Lancelot Todd, who dey travel to West Africa on an LSTM expedition together plus Joseph Everett Dutton, write down de testimonies of British officers who dey involve insyd putting down rebellions insyd British Sierra Leone den dey practice cutting de hands of de people they shot. De exact number of living victims who dey end up mutilated be unknown. ==== '''Hut Tax War of 1898''' ==== Insyd 1898, two rebellions dey break out against British colonial rule insyd Sierra Leone insyd response to de introduction of a new hut tax by Governor Frederic Cardew. On 1 January 1898, Cardew introduce de hut tax as a way to pay for de colonial administration ein financial expenditures. However, de tax prove to be beyond de financial means of many insyd de colony, provoking discontent. Insyd February 1898, an attempt by colonial officials to arrest Temne chief Bai Bureh lead to him den rebels under ein command to revolt against British rule. Bureh ein forces dey launch attacks on British officials den Creole traders. Despite de ongoing rebellion, Bureh dispatched two peace overtures to de British insyd April den June of dat year, aid by de mediation of Limba chief Almamy Suluku. Cardew dey reject both offers, as Bureh would not agree to surrender unconditionally. Bureh ein forces conducted a disciplined den skillfully execute guerrilla campaign which cause de British considerable difficulty. Hostilities begin insyd February; Bureh ein harassing tactics confounded de British at first but by May they gain ground. De rainy season interrupted hostilities until October, when British colonial forces resume de slow process of capturing rebel stockades. When most of these defences dey eliminate, Bureh be captured or surrendered (accounts differ) insyd November. De second revolt insyd de southeast be a mass uprising, planned somehow to commence everywhere on 27 den 28 April, insyd which almost all "outsiders"—whether European or Creole—be seized den summarily executed. Although more fearsome than Bai Bureh ein rising, na e be amorphous, dey lack a definite strategy, den be suppressed insyd most areas insyd two months. Some Mende rebels insyd de centre of de country no be beaten until November, however; den Mende king Nyagua ein son Maghi, insyd alliance plus some Kissi rebels, continued de revolt insyd de extreme east of de Protectorate until August 1899. De principal of de uprisings, Bureh, Nyagua den Kpana Lewis, be exiled to de Gold Coast on 30 July 1899. Nine months after de rebellion, de colonial government convicted den executed ninety-six rebels which had been found guilty of murder by hanging. Insyd 1905, Bureh be allowed by de British to return to Sierra Leone, where he continue reassume ein chieftaincy at de settlement of Kasseh. === Creole dissent insyd de high colonial period (1898–1956) === Insyd de early 19th century Freetown serve as de residence of de British governor who sana rule deGold Coast (now Ghana) den de Gambia settlements. Sierra Leone sana serve as de educational centre of British West Africa. Fourah Bay College, establish insyd 1827, rapidly become a magnet for English-speaking Africans on de west coast. For more than a century, e be de only European-style university insyd western Sub-Saharan Africa. After de Hut Tax War there be no more large-scale military resistance to colonialism. Resistance den dissent dey continue, but take oda forms. Vocal political dissent come mainly from de Creoles, who be a sizeable middle den upper class of business-people den European-educated professionals such as doctors den lawyers. Insyd de mid-19th century they had enjoyed a period of considerable political influence, but in the late 19th century the government become much less open to them. They continue to press for political rights, however, den dey operate a variety of newspapers which governors dey consider troublesome den demagogic. Insyd 1924, a new constitution be put insyd place, introducing elected representation (3 out of 22 members) for de first time, plus de first elections held on 28 October. Prominent among de Creoles demanding change be de bourgeois nationalist H.C. Bankole-Bright, General Secretary of de Sierra Leone Branch of de National Congress of British West Africa (NCBWA), den de socialist I.T.A. Wallace-Johnson, founder of de West African Youth League (WAYL). African resistance no be limited to political discussion. Sierra Leone develope an active trade union movement whose strikes often be accompanied by sympathetic rioting among de general population. Besides de colonial employers, popular hostility be targeted against de tribal chiefs who de British dey transform into functionaries insyd de colonial system of indirect rule. Demma role be to provide policing, collect taxes, den obtain corvée labour (forced labour exacted from those unable to pay taxes) for de colonial government; insyd return, de government maintain them insyd a privileged position over de oda Africans. Chiefs not willing to play this role be replaced by more compliant ones. According to Kilson, de attitude of de Africans toward demma chiefs become ambivalent: frequently they respect de office but resented de exactions made by de individual occupying it. From de chiefs ein point of view, de dilemma of an honourable ruler dey face plus British ultimatums cannot have been easy. Throughout de 20th century, there be numerous riots directed against tribal chiefs. These culminated insyd de Freetown riot of 1955, which be suppressed by a combined force of police den Royal Sierra Leone Regiment troops. After those riots, reforms be introduced: de forced-labour system be completely abolished den reductions be made insyd de powers of de chiefs. Sierra Leone remain divided into a Colony den a Protectorate, plus separate den different political systems constitutionally defined for each. Antagonism between the two entities escalated to a heated debate insyd 1947, when proposals be introduced to provide for a single political system. Most of de proposals come from de Protectorate. De Krio, led by Isaac Wallace-Johnson, oppose de proposals, de main effect of which will have been to diminish demma political power. E be due to de astute politics of Sir Milton Margai dat de educated Protectorate elite dey win over to join forces plus de paramount chiefs insyd de face of Krio intransigence. Later, Margai use de same skills to win-over opposition leaders den moderate Krio elements for de achievement of independence. Insyd November 1951, Margai dey overseew de drafting of a new constitution, which unite de separate Colonial den Protectorate legislatures den provide a framework for decolonization. Insyd 1953, Sierra Leone be granted local ministerial powers, den Margai be elected Chief Minister of Sierra Leone. De new constitution ensure Sierra Leone a parliamentary system insyd de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1957, Sierra Leone hold ein first parliamentary election. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP), which be then de most-popular political party insyd de colony of Sierra Leone, win de most seats insyd Parliament. Margai sana be re-elected as Chief Minister by an overwhelming majority. ==== '''Sierra Leone insyd World War II''' ==== Main article: Sierra Leone insyd World War II Throughout de war, Freetown serve as a critical convoy station for Allied ships. == 1960 Independence Conference == On 20 April 1960, Sir Milton Margai dey lead de Sierra Leonean delegation insyd de negotiations for independence at de constitutional conferences hold plus Queen Elizabeth II den British Colonial Secretary Iain Macleod, at Lancaster House insyd London. All twenty-four members of de Sierra Leonean delegation be prominent den well-respected politicians wey include Sir Milton ein younger brother lawyer Sir Albert Margai, trade unionist Siaka Stevens, SLPP-strongman Lamina Sankoh, Creole activist Isaac Wallace-Johnson, Paramount chief Ella Koblo Gulama, educationist Mohamed Sanusi Mustapha, Dr John Karefa-Smart, Professor Kande Bureh, lawyer Sir Banja Tejan-Sie, former Freetown Mayor Eustace Henry Taylor Cummings, educationist Amadu Wurie, den Creole diplomat Hector Reginald Sylvanus Boltman. On de conclusion of talks insyd London, Britain dey agree to grant Sierra Leone Independence on 27 April 1961. Stevens be de only delegate who refuse to sign Sierra Leone ein Declaration of Independence, on de grounds dat there had been a secret defence-pact between Sierra Leone den Britain; anoda point of contention by Stevens be de Sierra Leonean government ein position dat there will be no elections hold before independence which will effectively shut Stevens out of Sierra Leone ein political process. Upon demma return to Freetown on 4 May 1960, Stevens be promptly expelled from de People ein National Party (PNP). == Opposition to de SLPP government == Insyd 1961, Siaka Stevens, a trade unionist den outspoken critic of de SLPP government, take advantage of de dissatisfaction plus de ruling SLPP among some prominent politicians from de Northern part of Sierra Leone. He form an alliance plus Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, Christian Alusine-Kamara Taylor, Mohamed.O.Bash-Taqi, Ibrahim Bash-Taqi, S.A.T. Koroma den C.A. Fofana, den form a new political party called de All People ein Congress (APC) insyd opposition of de SLPP government, wey use de northern part of Sierra Leone as demma political base. == Early independence (1961–1968) == Main article: History of Sierra Leone (1961–78) ==== '''Sir Milton Margai administration (1961–1964)''' ==== On 27 April 1961, Sir Milton Margai dey lead Sierra Leone to Independence from Britain den become de country ein first prime minister. Sierra Leone retain a parliamentary system of government den be a member of de Commonwealth of Nations. Insyd May 1962, Sierra Leone hold ein first general election as an independent nation. De Sierra Leone People ein Party (SLPP) win plurality of seats insyd parliament den Sir Milton Margai be re-elected as prime minister. De years just after independence be prosperous, plus money from mineral resources being used for development den de founding of Njala University. Margai be very popular among Sierra Leoneans during ein time insyd power. An important aspect of ein character ein self-effacement; he neither be corrupt nor did he make a lavish display of ein power or status. Ein government be based on de rule of law den de notion of separation of powers, plus multiparty political institutions den fairly viable representative structures. Margai use ein conservative ideology to lead Sierra Leone without much strife. He appointed government officials plus a clear eye to satisfy various ethnic groups. Margai employ a brokerage style of politics by sharing political power between political groups den de paramount chiefs insyd de provinces. ==== '''Sir Albert Margai administration (1964–1967)''' ==== Upon Sir Milton Margai ein death insyd 1964, ein half-brother, Sir Albert Margai, be appointed as prime minister by parliament. Sir Albert ein leadership be briefly challenged by Sierra Leone ein Foreign Minister John Karefa-Smart, who dey question Sir Albert ein succession to de SLPP leadership position. Kareefa-Smart received little support insyd Parliament insyd ein attempt to have Margai stripe of de SLPP leadership. Soon after Margai was sworn insyd as prime minister, he immediately dismiss several senior government officials who dey serve under ein elder brother ein government, as he view them as traitors den a threat to ein administration. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Milton, Sir Albert Margai prove unpopular den dey resort to increasingly authoritarian actions insyd response to protests, wey include de enactment of several laws against de opposition All People ein Congress (APC) den an unsuccessful attempt to establish a one-party state. Unlike ein late brother, Sir Albert be opposed to de colonial legacy of allowing de country ein paramount chiefs executive powers, den he be seen as a threat to de existence of de ruling houses across de country—almost all of whom be strong supporters den key allies of de previous administration. Insyd 1967, riots break out insyd Freetown against Sir Albert ein policies. Insyd response, Margai declared a state of emergency across de country. He be accused of corruption den of a policy of affirmative action insyd favour of ein own Mende ethnic group Sir Albert dey have de opportunity to perpetuate einself insyd power, but he elect not to do so even when de opportunities present themselves. He have de police den de army on ein side den nothing can have prevented him from achieving ein ambition to hold on to power, but he choose not to den called for free den fair elections. ==== '''Three military coups (1967–1968)''' ==== De APC narrowly dey win a small majority of seats insyd Parliament over de SLPP insyd a closely contested 1967 Sierra Leone general election, den APC leader Siaka Stevens be sworn insyd as prime minister on 21 March 1967 insyd Freetown. Insyd hours of taking office, Stevens be ousted insyd a bloodless military coup dey lead by de commander of de army, Brigadier General David Lansana, a close ally of Sir Albert Margai who dey appoint Lansana to de position insyd 1964. Lansana placed Stevens under house arrest insyd Freetown den insisted de determination of office of de prime minister should await de election of de tribal representatives to de house. On 23 March, a group of senior military officers insyd de Sierra Leone Army lead by Brigadier Andrew Juxon-Smith overrode dis action by seizing control of de government, arresting Lansana, den suspending de constitution. De group constituted einself as de National Reformation Council (NRC) plus Juxon-Smith as ein chairman den Governor-General. On 18 April 1968, a group of senior military officers who called themselves de Anti-Corruption Revolutionary Movement (ACRM) lead by Brigadier General John Amadu Bangura overthraw de NRC junta. De ACRM juntas just arrest many senior NRC members. De democratic constitution be restored, den power be handed back to Stevens, who assume de office of prime minister. == Stevens government den one-party state (1968–1985) == Stevens dey assume power insyd 1968 plus a great deal of hope den ambition. Much trust be placed upon him as he championed multi-party politics. Stevens dey campaign on a platform of bringing de tribes together under socialist principles. During ein first decade or so insyd power, Stevens dey renegotiate some of what he call "useless prefinanced schemes" contracted by ein predecessors, Albert Margai of de SLPP den Juxon-Smith of de NRC, which be said to have left de country insyd an economically deprive state. Stevens dey reorganize de country ein refinery, de government-owned Cape Sierra Hotel, den a cement factory. He cancel Juxon-Smith ein construction of a church den mosque on de grounds of Victoria Park. Stevens begin efforts dat will later bridge de distance between de provinces den de city. Roads den hospitals be constructed insyd de provinces, den paramount chiefs den provincial peoples become a prominent force insyd Freetown. Under pressure of several coup attempts—real den perceived—Stevens ein rule grow more den more authoritarian, den ein relationship plus some of ein ardent supporters deteriorated. He remove de SLPP from competitive politics insyd general elections, some believe, through de use of violence den intimidation. To maintain de support of de military, Stevens retain de popular John Amadu Bangura as de head of de Sierra Leone Armed Forces. After de return to civilian rule, by-elections be held (beginning insyd autumn 1968) den an all-APC cabinet be appointed. Calm no be completely restored. Insyd November 1968, unrest insyd de provinces lead Stevens to declare a state of emergency. Many senior officers insyd de Sierra Leone military be greatly disappointed plus Stevens ein policies, but none can openly confront Stevens. Brigadier General Bangura, who dey reinstated Stevens as prime minister, be widely considered de only person who can put de brakes on Stevens. De army be devoted to Bangura den it was believed, insyd sam quarters, dat dis make him potentially dangerous to Stevens. Insyd January 1970, Bangura be arrested den charge plus conspiracy den plotting to commit a coup against de Stevens government. After a trial dat last a few months, Bangura be convicted den sententenced to death. He be hanged on 29 March 1970 insyd Freetown. Stevens dey name a junior officer, Joseph Saidu Momoh, as de head of de Sierra Leone Military. Major General Momoh be a close ally den very loyal to Stevens. On 23 March 1971, soldiers loyal to de executed Brigadier John Amadu Bangura hold a mutiny insyd Freetown den oda parts of de country insyd opposition of de Stevens government. Several soldiers be arrested for demma involvement insyd de mutiny, wey include Corporal Foday Sankoh who be convicted of treason den jailed for seven years at de Pademba Road Prison. At Stevens ein request to Guinean President Sekou Toure, a close ally, Guinean soldiers be stationed insyd Sierra Leone from 1971 to 1973 to help protect de government. Insyd April 1971, a new republican constitution be adopted under which Stevens become president. Insyd de 1972 by-elections, de opposition SLPP complain of intimidation den procedural obstruction by de APC den militia. These problems become so severe dat de SLPP boycotted de 1973 general election; as a result de APC win 84 of de 85 elected seats. Insyd de early 1970s, Siaka Stevens dey form ein own personal force known as de State Security Division (SSD), insyd order to protect him den to maintain ein hold on power. Many of de SSD officers be from de provinces, den be very loyal to Stevens. De SSD be very powerful den operate independently under Stevens ein direct command. De SSD officers guide Stevens den be deployed across Sierra Leone to put down any rebellion or demonstration against de Stevens government. An alleged plot to overthrow President Stevens fail insyd 1974. On 19 July 1975, 14 senior army den government officials dey include Brigadier David Lansana, former cabinet minister Dr. Mohamed Sorie Forna, former cabinet minister den journalist Ibrahim Bash-Taqi den Lieutenant Habib Lansana Kamara be executed after they be convicted for attempting a coup. Insyd March 1976, Stevens be re-elected president, without opposition. Insyd 1977, a nationwide student demonstration against de government disrupt Sierra Leone politics. However, de demonstrationbe quickly put down by de army den SSD officers. A general election be called later dat year insyd which corruption be again endemic. De APC win 74 seats den de SLPP win 15 seats. Insyd May 1978, de Sierra Leone Parliament, dominated by close allies of President Steven ein APC administration, approved a new constitution, which make de country a one-party state. On 12 July 1978, official figures release by de government showed 97 per cent of Sierra Leoneans vote insyd favour of de one-party state. De SLPP, oda opposition parties den civil right groups say de referendum votes be massively rigged, den dat voters be intimidated by security forces loyal to Stevens. De 1978 constitution referendum make de APC the only legal political party; all oda political parties be banned, wey include de main opposition (de SLPP). Dis move lead to anoda major demonstration against de government insyd many parts of de country, which be put down by de army den de SSD officers. De first elections under de new one-party constitution take place on 1 May 1982. Elections insyd about two-thirds of de constituencies be contested. Because of irregularities, de government cancel elections insyd 13 constituencies. By-elections take place on 4 June 1982. De new cabinet appoint by Stevens after de election include several prominent members of de disbanded SLPP who have defect to de APC, wey include de new Finance Minister Salia Jusu-Sheriff, a former leader of de SLPP. Jusu-Sheriff ein accession to de cabinet be viewed by many as a step toward making de APC a true national party. Stevens, who have been head-of-state of Sierra Leone for 18 years, retired from dat position insyd November 1985 at de end of ein term, although he continue ein role as chairman of de ruling APC party. Many insyd de country dey expect Stevens to name ein vice president den loyal ally, Sorie Ibrahim Koroma, as ein successor. However, at de APC convention insyd August 1985, de APC name Major General Joseph Saidu Momoh as Stevens ein choice to succeed him as president. Momoh be very loyal to Stevens who dey appoint him to head of de military fifteen years earlier; Momoh den Stevens be both members of de minority Limba ethnic group. Momoh dey retire from de military den be elected president without opposition on 1 October 1985. A formal inauguration dey hold insyd January 1986, den new parliamentary elections be held insyd May 1986. Siaka Stevens be generally criticised for dictatorial methods den government corruption, but he reduce de ethnic polarization insyd government by incorporating members of various ethnic groups into ein all-dominant APC government. Anoda legacy of Stevens be dat for eighteen years while he be insyd power, he keep de country safe from civil war den armed rebellion. Despite ein dictatorial governing style, Stevens regularly dey interact plus de people of Sierra Leone by making surprise visits. Stevens sana regularly make surprise visits to de poor merchants, where he be often seen buying ein own food at a local market plus ein security team keeping demma distance. Stevens often stand den wave to de Sierra Leonean people from an open car when travelling plus ein convoy. == Momoh government and RUF rebellion (1985–1991) == President Momoh ein strong links plus de army den ein verbal attacks on corruption earn him much-needed initial support among Sierra Leoneans. Plus de lack of new faces insyd ein cabinet, however, criticisms soon arose dat Momoh be simply perpetuating de rule of Stevens. Momoh differ einself by integrating de powerful den independent State Security Force (SSD) into de Sierra Leone Police force. De first years under de Momoh administration be characterised by corruption, which Momoh dey defuse by sacking several senior cabinet ministers. To formalise ein war against corruption, President Momoh announce a "Code of Conduct for Political Leaders den Public Servants". After an alleged attempt to overthrow Momoh insyd March 1987, more than 60 senior government officials be arrested, wey include Vice-president Francis Minah, who be removed from office, convicted for plotting de coup, den executed by hanging plus five odas insyd 1989. Insyd October 1990, due to mounting domestic den international pressure for reforms, President Momoh create a commission to review de 1978 one-party constitution. Base on de commission ein recommendations, a constitution re-establishing a multi-party system, guaranteeing fundamental human rights den de rule of law, den strengthening democratic structures, be approved by a 60% majority of de APC Parliament, ratify by referendum insyd September 1991 den become effective on 1 October. There be great suspicion dat President Momoh be not serious about ein promise of political reform, as APC rule continue to be increasingly marked by abuses of power. Several senior government officials insyd Momoh ein administration resign to oppose de APC in upcoming elections. Salia Jusu Sheriff, Abass Bundu, J.B. Dauda den Sama Banya resuscitated de previously disbanded SLPP, while Thaimu Bangura, Edward Kargbo den Desmond Luke formed demma own respective political parties to challenge de ruling APC. However, de vast majority of government officials including Victor Bockarie Foh, Edward Turay, Hassan Gbassay Kanu den Osman Foday Yansaneh remain loyal to Momoh den de APC. Meanwhile, an increasing burden be placed on de country by de rebellion insyd de eastern part of Sierra Leone. == Civil war (1991–2002) == Main article: Sierra Leone Civil War De brutal civil wardysneighbouring Liberia play an undeniable role insyd de outbreak of fighting insyd Sierra Leone. Charles Taylor—leader of de National Patriotic Front of Liberia—reportedly help form de Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under de command of former Sierra Leonean army corporal Foday Sankoh, a critic of both de Stevens den Momoh administrations. Sankoh had been an ally of Brigadier General Bangura den be among those who mutinied following Bangura ein execution. Sankoh be British-trained den had undergone guerrilla training insyd Libya. Taylor ein aim was for de RUF to attack de bases of Nigerian-dominated peacekeeping troops insyd Sierra Leone who were opposed to ein rebel movement insyd Liberia. Sankoh ein RUF rebels dey enter de country insyd March 1991, den within a month controlled much of Eastern Sierra Leone, wey include de diamond-mining area insyd Kono District. De government of Sierra Leone, overwhelm by a crumbling economy den corruption, be unable to mount significant resistance. At dis time, de Momoh government be crumbling. Several senior government officials dey resign to form opposition parties, while there be suspicions dat President Momoh no be serious about political reform. Abuses of power dey continue den de APC be alleged to have been hoarding arms den planning a violent campaign against de opposition parties ahead of multi-party general elections scheduled for late 1992. De state have been unable to play civil servants, leading to de looting of government property den a population of aimless youth when schools be closed. ==== '''NPRC Junta (1992–1996)''' ==== On 29 April 1992, twenty-five-year-old Captain Valentine Strasser lead a group of young Sierra Leone Army officers—wey include Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, Seargent Solomon Musa, Lieutenant Tom Nyuma, Captain Komba Mondeh, Captain Julius Maada Bio den Captain Komba Kambo—from demma barracks insyd Kailahun District den launch a military coup insyd Freetown, which send President Momoh into exile insyd Guinea. De young soldiers established de National Provisional Ruling Council (NPRC) plus Strasser as ein chairman den Head of State of de country. Captain Solomon Musa, a close friend of Strasser den one of de leaders of de coup, become de deputy leader of de NPRC Junta. De coup be largely popular because e promise to bring peace, but de NPRC Junta immediately suspended de constitution, ban all political parties, limited freedom of speech den freedom of de press den enact a rule-by-decree policy, insyd which soldiers be granted unlimited powers of administrative detention without charge or trial. De NPRC establish a Supreme Council, consisting of de highest-ranking soldiers insyd de Junta government. On de same day de NPRC Junta take power, one of de coup leaders, Lieutenant Sahr Sandy, be assassinated—reportedly by Major Sim Turay, de head of Sierra Leone Military Intelligence, den a close ally of de deposed president. A heavily armed military manhunt took place across Sierra Leone to find Turay den odas suspected to have participated insyd de assassination, forcing Turay to flee to Guinea. De NPRC Junta fight de RUF rebels, recapture most of de RUF-held territories, den push de rebels back to de border plus Liberia. De NPRC Junta maintain relations plus de Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) den strengthen support for Sierra Leone–based ECOWAS Monitoring Group (ECOMOG) troops fighting insyd Liberia. Insyd December 1992, an alleged coup attempt against de NPRC administration of Strasser be foiled; e dey aim at freeing from detention Colonel Yahya Kanu, Lt-Colonel Kahota M.S. Dumbuya den former inspector-general of police Bambay Kamara. Seargent Mohamed Lamin Bangura den some junior army officers be identified as being behind de coup. Seventeen soldiers be executed, wey include Bangura, Kanu den Dumbuya. Several prominent members of de Momoh government who have been insyd detention at de Pa Demba Road prison, wey include former inspector-general of police Bambay Kamara sana be executed. fyv7hc991xd0yt57cqou8num39a08ed 0 17989 67312 66657 2025-06-30T10:24:01Z Yambutigra 1400 67312 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == NIAMEY - Di Niger musician drum dey make high-low sound wey be like telegram, but e bi like nobody dey understand wetin e dey talk now. Every beat na syllable for Hausa. "You dey see, e hear im name!" Na wetin Oumarou Adamou wey dem dey call Maidouma talk, as him dey happy say him assistant don response. <ref>[https://www.enca.com/lifestyle/niger-struggles-keep-its-traditional-music-alive enca.com/lifestyle/niger-struggles-keep-its-traditional-music-alive]</ref> Di guy na master for douma, traditional instrument wey e dey play with sticks and him bare foot dey spin for de goat skin. But as rap and electronic music don show face, young pipo for Niger no sabi di drum beats again. For di world stage, Maidouma dey represent him country's musical heritage well, dressed fine for him sky-blue boubou. At home, him dey guard valuable collection of percussion, string and wind instruments wey dem house for di CFPM for Niamey. Di collection sweet wella because dem save am from fire wey burn di national museum for 2011. "Our traditional instruments dey face wahala to vanish," Adamou talk<ref>[https://www.enca.com/lifestyle/niger-struggles-keep-its-traditional-music-alive enca.com/lifestyle/niger-struggles-keep-its-traditional-music-alive]</ref> . "Di young ones want to play modern instruments like guitar and drums." - 'All don go' - Di age of di traditional instrument players like molo, wey be lute, or kalangou, long drum, dey raise fear say di know-how go die with dem. "How many artists dey practice here? E don finish, dem don all go," Yacouba Moumouni wey be Denke Denke talk, wey dey play traditional Fulani flute and dey sing. Artist and teacher Mahamane Sani Mati talk say Niger music no fit open to other world music and modernize. Lack of money dey make am hard to preserve for one of di poorest countries. About 70 percent of Niger pipo dey under 25. Di diplomatic wahala between dem military leaders and Western partners since di July 26 coup no b good sign for culture.<ref>[https://www.enca.com/lifestyle/niger-struggles-keep-its-traditional-music-alive enca.com/lifestyle/niger-struggles-keep-its-traditional-music-alive]</ref> == References == <references responsive="" /> nhfit30id37s63wxwpqc2vsjfwhw0md 0 17992 67313 66661 2025-06-30T10:26:23Z Yambutigra 1400 67313 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Introduction''' == Saudi Arabia: Dem dey push Ethiopian migrants wey dem keep for bad conditions back home<ref><nowiki>https://www.bing.com/search?q=Ethiopian+Migrant+Repatriation+from+Saudi+Arabia&cvid=30768a87e56b49d09a01ca5fd00bd449&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOdIBCDEwNTBqMGoxqAIAsAIA&FORM=ANAB01&DAF0=1&PC=U531</nowiki></ref> Saudi people dey force plenty Ethiopian migrants go back, after dem hold dem without any chance for freedom and for cruel conditions, all because dem no get correct papers. This matter dey worse because of Saudi’s bad kafala system, Amnesty International talk today. Dem dey call for Saudi authorities make dem check wetin dey happen, like cases of torture and at least ten deaths wey happen between 2021 and 2022.<ref><nowiki>https://www.bing.com/search?q=Ethiopian+Migrant+Repatriation+from+Saudi+Arabia&cvid=30768a87e56b49d09a01ca5fd00bd449&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOdIBCDEwNTBqMGoxqAIAsAIA&FORM=ANAB01&DAF0=1&PC=U531</nowiki></ref> Di new report, “E be like say we no be human”: Forced returns, wicked detention conditions of Ethiopian migrants for Saudi Arabia, show how Ethiopian men, women and pikin wey dem dey hold for Al-Kharj and Al-Shumaisi detention centres dey suffer and how dem dey push dem go back to Ethiopia from June 2021 to May 2022.<ref><nowiki>https://www.bing.com/search?q=Ethiopian+Migrant+Repatriation+from+Saudi+Arabia&cvid=30768a87e56b49d09a01ca5fd00bd449&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOdIBCDEwNTBqMGoxqAIAsAIA&FORM=ANAB01&DAF0=1&PC=U531</nowiki></ref> “Since 2017, Saudi Arabia don dey hold plenty Ethiopian migrants for terrible conditions wey don make many of dem get serious health issues. Now, over 30,000 Ethiopian nationals still dey face the same wahala. Just because person no get legal paper no mean say dem go take away dem human rights,” Heba Morayef, Amnesty International’s Regional Director for di Middle East and North Africa talk.<ref><nowiki>https://www.bing.com/search?q=Ethiopian+Migrant+Repatriation+from+Saudi+Arabia&cvid=30768a87e56b49d09a01ca5fd00bd449&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOdIBCDEwNTBqMGoxqAIAsAIA&FORM=ANAB01&DAF0=1&PC=U531</nowiki></ref> Saudi Arabia dey try hard to change dem image...but behind di nice cover na horrible abuse wey dey happen to migrants wey dey work hard to help Saudi Arabia achieve dem big dreams<ref><nowiki>https://www.bing.com/search?q=Ethiopian+Migrant+Repatriation+from+Saudi+Arabia&cvid=30768a87e56b49d09a01ca5fd00bd449&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOdIBCDEwNTBqMGoxqAIAsAIA&FORM=ANAB01&DAF0=1&PC=U531</nowiki></ref> == '''References''' == <references responsive="" /> djvh6x2rxm9l2e7coh8d5l7u3gjhxmr 0 17994 67311 66663 2025-06-30T10:21:07Z Yambutigra 1400 67311 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == [[Botswana International University of Science and Technology|Botswana]] go soon release and move more than 400 asylum seekers wey no fit get approval from Francistown Centre for Illegal Immigrants go Dukwi refugee camp within some weeks. Dis na because people dey complain say dem dey violate human rights as dem dey hold dem for long. Justice and Correctional Services Minister, Nelson Ramaotwana, talk dis matter during im visit to Francistown and Dukwi, e talk say na human-centered policies from President Duma Boko government dey drive dis move. "When we mention ‘illegal immigrant centre’, e fit make people think say na just transit place, but na prison be dat," na wetin the minister talk. E talk say e dey pang the way families dey scatter, with children dey under care of adults wey no be dem relations. "Pikin dey far from dem mama, if na male, dem dey under dem papa care, and those wey no get papa, dem dey with men wey dem no sabi,” e talk. Girls dey stay with their mamas, but if na father remain, dem dey with women wey dem no fit relate to. "Na why I dey here to talk say government don decide to release dem rejected asylum seekers wey dey for Francistown Centre for Illegal Immigrants." Botswana dey try help refugees and asylum seekers go back their country, but many no wan go back because e dey dangerous for dem there. Dis detention policy don get critique from human rights groups and asylum advocates wey dey argue say no suppose treat rejected asylum seekers like prisoners. Dem expect relocation process go take between two weeks to one month, wey di asylum seekers go transfer to Dukwi refugee camp so dem fit get beta humanitarian support and living conditions. JN/APA Sha<ref>[https://www.bing.com/search?pglt=43&q=Botswana%E2%80%99s+Migrant+Repatriation+During+Border+Closures&cvid=f85b6d27a311439c97372a2fbe469d3d&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOdIBCDE0ODRqMGoxqAIAsAIA&FORM=ANNTA1&DAF0=1&PC=U531 Botswana’s Migrant Repatriation During Border Closures - Search]</ref> == References == <references /> 5483htq2vp9wcrwnwq8h6ng7mii47vu 0 17996 67310 66697 2025-06-30T10:12:54Z Yambutigra 1400 67310 wikitext text/x-wiki == Introduction == Sana’a/Addis Ababa – For Monday (11/12), IOM don start de voluntary humanitarian return (VHR) flights from Yemen to Ethiopia again, na de first movement since September. <ref>[https://mena.iom.int/news/voluntary-return-flights-stranded-ethiopian-migrants-yemen-resume Voluntary Return Flights for Stranded Ethiopian Migrants in Yemen | IOM Regional Office for Middle East and North Africa]</ref> Di charter flight wey carry 118 migrants, wey include men, women, and pikin, bring small hope for plenty stranded Ethiopian migrants wey dey face serious wahala. Even with all dis wahala, we dey urge di international community make dem come help quick to secure di safety and well-being of di vulnerable migrants,” na wetin Matt Huber, di Acting Chief of Mission of IOM Yemen, talk.“Dis na just de beginning of dis work together, and because de need dey high, we dey expect more collaboration to tackle di urgent needs of stranded migrants, even as resources dey limited for VHR for both Yemen and Ethiopia.“ Dis na just de beginning of dis work together, and because di need dey high, we dey expect more collaboration to tackle de urgent needs of stranded migrants, even as resources dey limited for VHR for both Yemen and Ethiopia. Dey need humanitarian help badly for Yemen. Dis urgent needs dey often pass wetin humanitarian workers fit provide quickly, dem dey held back by limited access for some areas and resources wey dem partner organizations dey struggle with.Three years ago, 29-year-old Hayat start de tough journey from Ethiopia carry go Yemen, dey find better job opportunities. “Six months ago, I don move go Sana’a with my pikin to find help,” Hayat talk. “Since den, I dey wait to finally meet my family back.” VHR flights dey considered like life savers for stranded migrants for Yemen. Di programme don set one system wey go help for dignified returns to Ethiopia. == '''References''' == fytjfjht1eixumlrh5902cub6r674sg 0 18006 67301 66789 2025-06-30T09:36:04Z Memoriesghana 67 67301 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Introduction''' de war and its aftermath wey leave left millions of Sudanese people dis placed within their own country and across borders. Political and physical infrastructures have been completely don spoil and, the capacity of local institutions and communities is far from ready to meet the expected massive return and reintegration of displaced people. Many of the displaced will be returning to areas which have suffered severely, not only from conflict, but also drought, and where basic social services are extremely limited or non-existent. While protection and community-based reintegration activities in these areas are gradually taking root, the access from refugee settlements in hosting countries to areas of return presents an enormous challenge. UNHCR has set itself the target of helping some 64,000 people to repatriate before the end of 2005. Organised voluntary returns will begin after the end of the rainy season in October, conditions permitting. To effectively start organised returns and make the returnees’ journey home a safe one, timely and substantial financial resources are re quired. At this stage, urgent funds are needed to repair selected sections of the road network from neighboring countries to areas of return; reinforce bridges over which trucks carrying refugees and their belongings will cross; procure barges to cross the river Nile; procure trucks and convoy vehicles in areas where commercial transport is non-existent; set up and manage way stations and dispersal centres; establish an emer gency response capacity to assist stranded spontaneously returning refugees and inter nally displaced persons; and demine routes of return. Countries of Asylum Expected Return in 2005 Main Area of Return Kenya Uganda 15,500 6,000 Equatoria Equatoria Ethiopia 25,000 Democratic Republic of the Congo Central African Republic 10,000 6,000 Egypt 1,500 Southern Blue Nile Yambio (W. Equatoria) Tambura (W. Equatoria) Khartoum/S. Sudan During the pre-rainy season from January to May 2005, UNHCR’s efforts have been focused on establishing presence in the areas where returns are expected and undertak ing activities to support spontaneous returnees, refugees and internally displaced per sons as well as receiving communities to avert further displacement and create absorp tion capacity. UNHCR opened offices in Yambio, Kajo Keji and Malakal in 2005 to complement its existing offices in Juba, Rumbek and Yei. The Office started building the capacity of local institutions to strengthen protection and deployed an emergency response team of sectoral experts in water, sanitation, health, education, community services and income-generation to kick-start community-based reintegration projects. 2 Return and Reintegration of Sudanese Refugees to Southern Sudan Executive Summary (continued)... The rainy and post-rainy seasons present greater challenges that will require matching financial resources. During the rainy season (June-September), UNHCR will engage in preparatory activities for organized voluntary repatriation and will start repatriation ac tivities after the rainy season. Meanwhile, refugees in neighboring countries who are not yet ready to return home will continue to receive protection and assistance. Structures, such as this destroyed school in Yam bio, will be rehabilitated to facilitate the return and reintegration of refugees who have benefited from such services in the asylum countries. Photo: UNHCR/S. Malik To meet these daunting yet surmountable challenges, the sustained and long-term sup port of the international community is crucial. UNHCR will require USD 76.3 million for its regional operations, of which USD 54.5 million represents operations in South Sudan and USD 21.8 activities in countries of asylum as well as Headquarters support. UNHCR’s revised requirements for South Sudan are included in the June 2005 revision of the UN Work Plan. The purpose of this appeal is not only to highlight the needs in Sudan, but also to reflect the needs in countries of asylum which are not part of the UN Work Plan. This school in Yei is used by primary school children, in cluding spontaneous returnees. Photo: UNHCR/ S. Malik 3 Return and Reintegration of Sudanese Refugees to Southern Sudan Background . The signing of the Comprehen sive Peace Agreement (CPA) between the Government of Sudan and the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM) in Janu ary 2005 ends one of the longest running civil conflicts in Africa and paves the way for the recovery and reconstruction of South Sudan and the return of mil lions of uprooted people . According to the interim figures recently released by the Sudan Relief and Rehabilitation Commission (SRRC)1 more than 500,000 refugees and internally dis placed persons already returned to South Sudan and the Transitional Areas be tween January 2004 and March 2005. However, large numbers of people who are still displaced and wish to return home simply do not have the means to do so at this stage. At the same time, an estimated 320,000 new displacements have been recorded in the South2, while new Sudanese refugees have arrived in Uganda and Kenya. In Sudan, the challenges for the post conflict return and reintegration of refu gees and internally displaced persons are enormous and the task at hand is beyond any single agency’s capability. The lack of capacity in the country is evident at all levels and in all sectors. In a politically fragile environment, typical of post conflict situations, returnees and their communities must not be left in deprived conditions for extended periods of time without means and opportunities for the future, in particular with regard to protec tion, basic services and livelihoods. Many may opt to return to their countries of asylum or become internally displaced persons again. This phenomenon of back flows is often witnessed in repatriation operations when return and reintegration are not sustainable due to the lack of ade quate financial commitment. Similarly, those who wish to return home should be provided with the means to do so, as sus tainable return of millions of displaced people will contribute to the consolida tion of peace. People in South Sudan are rebuilding their lives and creating income-generating opportunities such as these local shops in South Sudan. Photo: UNHCR _{'''References'''} 4 1 SRRC is the humanitarian wing of SPLM<ref>[https://www.bing.com/search?pglt=43&q=Return+and+Reintegration+of+Cameroonian+Refugees+from+Nigeria&cvid=c71934f5a8694837bb8e12ad84641ada&gs_lcrp=EgRlZGdlKgYIABBFGDkyBggAEEUYOdIBCDEzNTBqMGoxqAIAsAIA&FORM=ANNTA1&DAF0=1&PC=U531 Return and Reintegration of Cameroonian Refugees from Nigeria - Search]</ref> 43zjwo3cl09xduoa0f352tcuegvijo9 0 18026 67303 66865 2025-06-30T09:48:17Z Domatieha 3228 Na minor edit ebi 67303 wikitext text/x-wiki International Organisation for Migration (IOM) don help bring back 140 Nigerians wey dey stranded for Sudan for months because of the wahala wey dey there. 140 Nigerians wey no fit escape from Sudan don finally come back after long waiting. IOM carry dem home safely because of the war matter. Dem bi returnees get support when dem land, like counselling, medical help, and transport. Dem get option for Voluntary Humanitarian Return wey help vulnerable people, like women, children, and sick people. A chartered flight wey be first mission since the Sudan wahala start land for Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport on 27 February 2025.<ref>[https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/lifestyle/140-stranded-nigerians-evacuated-from-sudan-after-months-of-uncertainty/rtk7wpz 140 stranded Nigerians evacuated from Sudan after months of uncertainty | Business Insider Africa]</ref> As dem land, Nigerian government people and humanitarian workers welcome dem well, make sure say dem get all the help wey dem need. Dem get important services, like: Counselling, Medical Help, and Transport to their final place.Di returnees talk how dem suffer plenty for Sudan because of di war. Bashir, one of dem, share im own wahala. “After di war, we dey outside, no place to sleep, no food. E dey hard, and no hope because di war no fit stop. We dey grateful say we don come back home.” Di Sudanese wahala wey start for 2023 don make over 12 million people waka, include migrants wey lose dia homes, documents, an di tins wey belong to dem. According to Mohamed Refaat, IOM Sudan Chief of Mission:<ref>[https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/lifestyle/140-stranded-nigerians-evacuated-from-sudan-after-months-of-uncertainty/rtk7wpz 140 stranded Nigerians evacuated from Sudan after months of uncertainty | Business Insider Africa]</ref> olf0b3y24jdd09s2avnvnwdhx7sezoz 67308 67303 2025-06-30T10:06:50Z Yambutigra 1400 67308 wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Introduction''' == International Organisation for Migration (IOM) don help bring back 140 Nigerians wey dey stranded for Sudan for months because of the wahala wey dey there. 140 Nigerians wey no fit escape from Sudan don finally come back after long waiting. IOM carry dem home safely because of the war matter. Dem bi returnees get support when dem land, like counselling, medical help, and transport. Dem get option for Voluntary Humanitarian Return wey help vulnerable people, like women, children, and sick people. A chartered flight wey be first mission since the Sudan wahala start land for Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport on 27 February 2025.<ref>[https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/lifestyle/140-stranded-nigerians-evacuated-from-sudan-after-months-of-uncertainty/rtk7wpz 140 stranded Nigerians evacuated from Sudan after months of uncertainty | Business Insider Africa]</ref> As dem land, Nigerian government people and humanitarian workers welcome dem well, make sure say dem get all the help wey dem need. Dem get important services, like: Counselling, Medical Help, and Transport to their final place.Di returnees talk how dem suffer plenty for Sudan because of di war. Bashir, one of dem, share im own wahala. “After di war, we dey outside, no place to sleep, no food. E dey hard, and no hope because di war no fit stop. We dey grateful say we don come back home.” Di Sudanese wahala wey start for 2023 don make over 12 million people waka, include migrants wey lose dia homes, documents, an di tins wey belong to dem. According to Mohamed Refaat, IOM Sudan Chief of Mission:<ref>[https://africa.businessinsider.com/local/lifestyle/140-stranded-nigerians-evacuated-from-sudan-after-months-of-uncertainty/rtk7wpz 140 stranded Nigerians evacuated from Sudan after months of uncertainty | Business Insider Africa]</ref> == '''References''' == fuyicaj2s6wkzwfeusroyv96i7amz7m 0 18049 67317 66994 2025-06-30T10:59:07Z Domatieha 3228 67317 wikitext text/x-wiki Algeria don start dey send plenty sub-Saharan African migrants go Niger. Dem begin di waka over di weekend as 60 buses land for Assamaka, wetin be remote town for northern Niger. Expert Zagazola Makama wey sabi counterterrorism talk say di buses, wey Algeria security dey follow, carry plenty migrants from different African countries wey dey live for Algeria. Niger officials for Assamaka confirm say dem don land, and dem talk say na one of di biggest return wey dem don see for years. “Dis just be di beginning. We dey prepare to take plenty more in di coming days,” one local official wey wan remain anonymous talk. Makama talk say dem expect up to 400 buses soon, as dem dey plan big repatriation. Di report come talk say di mass deportation dey happen as tension don rise between Algeria and di Alliance of Sahel States (AES), wey include Niger, Mali, and Burkina Faso. <ref>[https://businessday.ng/news/article/algeria-begins-mass-deportation-of-sub-saharan-migrants-to-niger/ Algeria begins mass deportation of Sub-Saharan migrants to Niger - Businessday NG]</ref> jlveypcot4famfbzx3yfz1c2gvm1j6a 0 18114 67134 2025-06-29T14:58:38Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 Kaleo senior High Technical 67134 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Kale Senior High Technical School''' dey for '''Kaleo''', one town wey dey the '''Upper West Region''' of Ghana. E dey about '''15 kilometers from Wa go Nadowli side'''. The school dey for the '''western part of Kaleo''', near the '''Catholic Mission''' and '''St. Basilide Vocational Technical Institute'''. Dem first start the school in '''1963 as middle school''', later change am to '''Junior High School (JHS)''' for '''1974''', then turn am into '''Senior Secondary Technical School''' for '''1991'''. pa3zrrjsxe2j1dy5m5oxd7k21qfnuel 0 18115 67135 2025-06-29T15:21:53Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 Anthony Mwinkaara Sumah 67135 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Anthony Mwinkaara Sumah''' (born '''17 January 1982''') be '''Ghanaian politician''' and member of the '''National Democratic Congress (NDC)'''. Right now, he be the '''Member of Parliament (MP)''' for '''Nadowli Kaleo Constituency''' for the '''Upper West Region'''. == Early Life and Education == Mwinkaara come from '''Charikpong''', wey dey the '''Upper West Region of Ghana'''. He go '''St. Anthony’s Primary School''', then move go '''Tuolu Senior High School'''. After that, he get admission go '''University of Ghana, Legon''', where he graduate with '''Bachelor of Science Degree in Health Service Administration'''. == References == # "Parliament of Ghana". ''www.parliament.gh''. Retrieved 10 November 2022 ct6s8gmi4smd1yi2em7canfl6e0zj9b 0 18116 67136 2025-06-29T15:47:08Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 African historiography 67136 wikitext text/x-wiki '''African historiography''' be one branch of history work wey study how people dey write and interpret African history. Since most African societies no dey write things down early, dem use '''oral tradition''' (wey be storytelling, songs, proverbs, and memory) to keep record. Because of that, African historians today dey use '''different modern methods''', including '''oral stories''', and things from other areas like '''archaeology and linguistics''', to build African history. This be why African historiography no dey exactly like other continents’ own — e dey more '''multidisciplinary'''. For the past, African oral history use different people for the community — like elders, chiefs, griots — to form one kind of '''community-agreed history'''. But the first people wey write about Africa na '''foreigners''', and dem come with their own '''bias'''. During colonial times, the kind history wey white people write dey '''Eurocentric''', and dem even bring '''racist theories''' like the '''Hamitic hypothesis''', wey talk say only outsiders bring civilisation come Africa. '''Proper African historiography''' start become organized around the '''mid-20th century'''. At that time, African historians begin fight back those '''colonial lies''', and write history wey go '''make Africans proud''' and support new '''nation states''' after independence. Dem begin take oral stories serious, and combine am with things like '''archaeology''' and '''language studies'''. Later, as people begin feel more '''worried about Africa’s future''', '''Marxist ideas''' enter the conversation. This one help historians study colonialism in a '''deeper and more critical way'''. From '''1981''', '''UNESCO''' start publish the '''General History of Africa''', with African experts from different countries as editors. Today, African historians still dey try build strong institutions, use '''African ways of knowing (epistemologies)''', fix proper '''African timeline (periodisation)''', and most importantly, tell the story from '''African people’s own perspective'''.'''African historiography''' be one branch of history work wey study how people dey write and interpret African history. Since most African societies no dey write things down early, dem use '''oral tradition''' (wey be storytelling, songs, proverbs, and memory) to keep record. Because of that, African historians today dey use '''different modern methods''', including '''oral stories''', and things from other areas like '''archaeology and linguistics''', to build African history. This be why African historiography no dey exactly like other continents’ own — e dey more '''multidisciplinary'''. For the past, African oral history use different people for the community — like elders, chiefs, griots — to form one kind of '''community-agreed history'''. But the first people wey write about Africa na '''foreigners''', and dem come with their own '''bias'''. During colonial times, the kind history wey white people write dey '''Eurocentric''', and dem even bring '''racist theories''' like the '''Hamitic hypothesis''', wey talk say only outsiders bring civilisation come Africa. == The Concept of Africa == Africa get plenty-plenty different things – like e weather, culture, language dem, and religion. One scholar, Valentin Mudimbe, talk say na people wey no be Africans first bring dis idea of “Africa” come, especially Europeans. But later, Africans wey dem carry go abroad during slave trade time come start to see Africa as dem home. Na so pan-African idea begin grow. Still, na the wahala wey all African countries face under colonial masters, and how dem fight am, wey make Africans begin see demself as one people. == Traditional Oral Historiography and Early Written History (Pidgin Translation) == For Africa, the way people dey tell history no start with book. E start with talking. People like griots for West Africa, old people, and “men of memory” na dem dey talk the history. Africans believe say history na how human being dey live with gods, ancestors and nature. For African societies, na everybody for the community get mouth for the story. Dem go use wetin dem see, hear, remember, dream or even vision take build story wey dem go dey pass from one generation to another – sometimes with music and performance. For dis oral tradition, time fit no be straight like calendar; sometimes e be like myth or social story. Even ancestors be part of the actors. Many origin stories dey wey help group define who dem be and join other groups. E also help form religious beliefs and political power. Places wey no get king or central government dey use clan or family stories pass. Africa no just dey talk story – some people also write. Ancient Egypt people get hieroglyphics (dem kind drawing-writing), and dem use am write history since 1580 BCE. When Rosetta Stone come out for 1799, dem fit decode the hieroglyphs. But na mostly European scholars dey study am. Books like ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' (230 CE) and ''Ptolemy’s Geography'' (140 CE) talk about Africa. For Aksum (now Ethiopia), dem write Geʽez inscriptions for stone and dem talk about king reigns, wars, and charity. When Islam spread, many African scholars start to write history for Arabic. People like al-Masudi, al-Bakri, and Ibn Battuta write about African societies. But dem like Muslim kings pass and no talk well about non-Muslims. For West Africa and Swahili areas, people use Arabic or dem own script called Ajami to write local languages like Hausa, Yoruba, Swahili, and Fula. Books like ''Kilwa Chronicle'', ''Timbuktu Chronicles'', ''Kitab Gonja'', ''Funj Chronicle'' and ''Kano Chronicle'' carry our oral stories enter book. Europeans start to write plenty things about African coast from 15th century. But dem talk say Africa be strange, warlike and backward. Portuguese write plenty things for 16th century but dem hide am to keep trade secrets. Later, English, French, Dutch and German people begin write too. Dem focus on trade – like which area get wetin, where dem dey buy/sell, and who control market. Some early books include Job Ludolf’s ''Historia Aethiopica'' (1681) and Dalzel’s ''History of Dahomy'' (1793). Missionaries wey come later try write too but dem no understand African religion well. Few try learn African language and write better records. Even for Enlightenment time, philosophers like Hegel still talk say Africa no get history. == Colonial Historiography == Before colonial time, most African societies no dey write dema history; dem dey use oral tradition — like storytelling, proverb, song — to pass info. But when colonialists come, dem write Africa ein history base on only European point of view, wey dem no consider di African people demma side. Dem focus on soldiers, colonial officers, and oda white people wey come control Africa. Dis be all because dem believe say white man be better pass Black man — dem see Africans as primitive, inferior, and stuck for past. Dem come dey promote one idea called '''Hamitic Hypothesis''', wey talk say only light-skinned Africans (wey dem believe say dem no be real Africans) be civilised. Dem use dat idea talk say all di development for Africa no come from Black people demselves but from outsiders. Plenty of di European historians dem no dey respect oral history; dem talk say Africa no get real history unless Europeans write am. But small group of dem try collect stories and archaeology info to tell di African story proper — but nobody really dey respect dem work dat time. Meanwhile, some African historians wey live under colonial rule like '''Carl Christian Reindorf''', '''Samuel Johnson''', '''Apollo Kaggwa''', and '''J. B. Danquah''' write books to protect demma people ein history. Still, people no take dem serious like di white man ein books. == Postcolonial Historiography == When Africa start fight for independence during di 1950s and 1960s, new African historians come rise. Dem want rewrite African history in we own voice. Dem come reject all di colonial lies and promote African pride. Dis new wave come use '''oral tradition''' plus archaeology, language study, and even local knowledge to build proper African history. For Nigeria, di '''Ibadan School of History''', led by '''Kenneth Dike''' and '''Jacob Ade Ajayi''', come champion dis idea. Ghana get '''Legon School''', Tanzania get '''Dar es Salaam School''', and Senegal-Gambia side get '''Dakar School''' — dem all dey prove say African history no dey depend on white people ein version. UNESCO sef support African historians make dem write one big project — '''General History of Africa''' — from African scholars across di continent. But some of dis new nationalist history too get issue — dem too dey copy Western way of thinking, focus too much on kings and politics, and sometimes dem no dey talk enough about how colonialism really mess Africa up. == From Hope to Frustration == By di late 1960s and 1970s, some African scholars start vex say leaders wey fight for independence no really help di people — dem chop power, create corruption, and turn neo-colonial. Dis be where '''Walter Rodney''' enter with ein book '''"How Europe Underdeveloped Africa"'''. He talk say slavery and colonialism destroy Africa ein natural development path, and make we depend on white man forever. He challenge di Western idea of development and promote Marxist (socialist) thinking. Dis new Marxist-African historiography now shift di focus from just leaders and kings to normal people — farmers, women, poor men. == Contemporary Historiography == By di 1980s, African universities dey struggle. Brain drain start — smart African scholars move go abroad. Di original excitement for African history start fade. But den too, people start do '''"history from below"''' — tell di stories of ordinary people instead of just kings and leaders. Scholars like '''Valentin Mudimbe''' come argue say African scholars still dey depend too much on Western ideas, and we for build our own African way of thinking and knowing — called '''African epistemology'''. South Africa history sef shake when apartheid end — white people come face dem past. Elsewhere, people begin focus on clan history, village story, and community memory. But some areas like economic history — money, trade, production — suffer neglect from di 1980s till now, even tho e still dey important. African universities between '''Sahara and Zambezi''' still no dey teach am well. Today, many African historians dey focus on current issues like poverty and global capitalism, but dem dey neglect early African history because e dey hard to collect info and di oral tradition dey vanish as elders die (COVID-19 and HIV/AIDS spoil ein side). We get challenge say most African history still dey write in English or French, so di local people no dey access am. Scholars like '''Funso Afolayan''' dey talk say we for write history for we people, not just for white man audience. Still, we never build full '''African philosophy of history''' wey go stand independent from Western ideas. == Pathing the Future == For ein book '''"Decolonizing African History"''' (2024), '''Toyin Falola''' talk say we for change di way we dey learn and teach history — make we use African knowledge systems. We for dey ask: wetin African people need to know about dema past to solve African problems? E dey say we for take oral traditions and early local writings serious to rebuild we history properly and proudly. == Periodisation == How people take divide African history into periods still dey base on European style. Dem go talk say Africa get “ancient”, “medieval” and “modern” — but dis no fit African realities. African historians dey argue say we for base di time periods on internal African change, not just contact with foreigners. Some like '''Basil Davidson''' talk say Africa ein “ancient” time end around 1000 CE. Others say maybe di Arab conquest period be better marker. Still, no agreed way dey yet to periodise African history in a way wey fit everywhere across di continent. == Oral Tradition == Oral tradition na how African societies pass knowledge from generation to generation — through talk, story, proverb, music. African culture dey respect di spoken word — we dey see am as powerful and important. Unlike books, oral tradition dey involve emotion, performance, memory, and communal participation. People dey perform stories to entertain and educate at the same time. Historians now dey go field to record and transcribe oral stories, but dat process get challenge — like language barrier, trust issue, and wahala from translating meaning correctly. One way wey dem dey try get dates from oral history be through '''lists of rulers''', and use '''generational average''' (about 27 years per generation) to estimate dates. Scholars like '''Barbara Cooper''' and '''Karin Barber''' talk say we for see oral history as performance — not just word-for-word truth but as expression of cultural power, memory, and emotion. == Academic Debate on Oral Tradition == For 1960s, historians like '''Jan Vansina''' defend oral tradition as legit history method. But dem face critique — some say oral tradition just support present power structures (presentist critique), others say e dey full of myth and symbolism (cosmological critique). '''Joseph Miller''' counter di cosmological one by saying we fit learn plenty if we study how people dey interpret memory, politics, and struggle. But di critique about present-day bias still dey hard to fully answer. Some say we for also look at di life of di storyteller, not just di tradition — make we understand wetin e dey try say and how e life influence di message. Others say outsiders (like European historians) no fit fully grasp di tradition unless dem get insider perspective odgvy6bfw9g5st6edlkhxgb0gdaoxgk 67137 67136 2025-06-29T16:01:05Z GBOLO STEPHEN 3226 Environmental history 67137 wikitext text/x-wiki '''African historiography''' be one branch of history work wey study how people dey write and interpret African history. Since most African societies no dey write things down early, dem use '''oral tradition''' (wey be storytelling, songs, proverbs, and memory) to keep record. Because of that, African historians today dey use '''different modern methods''', including '''oral stories''', and things from other areas like '''archaeology and linguistics''', to build African history. This be why African historiography no dey exactly like other continents’ own — e dey more '''multidisciplinary'''. For the past, African oral history use different people for the community — like elders, chiefs, griots — to form one kind of '''community-agreed history'''. But the first people wey write about Africa na '''foreigners''', and dem come with their own '''bias'''. During colonial times, the kind history wey white people write dey '''Eurocentric''', and dem even bring '''racist theories''' like the '''Hamitic hypothesis''', wey talk say only outsiders bring civilisation come Africa. '''Proper African historiography''' start become organized around the '''mid-20th century'''. At that time, African historians begin fight back those '''colonial lies''', and write history wey go '''make Africans proud''' and support new '''nation states''' after independence. Dem begin take oral stories serious, and combine am with things like '''archaeology''' and '''language studies'''. Later, as people begin feel more '''worried about Africa’s future''', '''Marxist ideas''' enter the conversation. This one help historians study colonialism in a '''deeper and more critical way'''. From '''1981''', '''UNESCO''' start publish the '''General History of Africa''', with African experts from different countries as editors. Today, African historians still dey try build strong institutions, use '''African ways of knowing (epistemologies)''', fix proper '''African timeline (periodisation)''', and most importantly, tell the story from '''African people’s own perspective'''.'''African historiography''' be one branch of history work wey study how people dey write and interpret African history. Since most African societies no dey write things down early, dem use '''oral tradition''' (wey be storytelling, songs, proverbs, and memory) to keep record. Because of that, African historians today dey use '''different modern methods''', including '''oral stories''', and things from other areas like '''archaeology and linguistics''', to build African history. This be why African historiography no dey exactly like other continents’ own — e dey more '''multidisciplinary'''. For the past, African oral history use different people for the community — like elders, chiefs, griots — to form one kind of '''community-agreed history'''. But the first people wey write about Africa na '''foreigners''', and dem come with their own '''bias'''. During colonial times, the kind history wey white people write dey '''Eurocentric''', and dem even bring '''racist theories''' like the '''Hamitic hypothesis''', wey talk say only outsiders bring civilisation come Africa. == The Concept of Africa == Africa get plenty-plenty different things – like e weather, culture, language dem, and religion. One scholar, Valentin Mudimbe, talk say na people wey no be Africans first bring dis idea of “Africa” come, especially Europeans. But later, Africans wey dem carry go abroad during slave trade time come start to see Africa as dem home. Na so pan-African idea begin grow. Still, na the wahala wey all African countries face under colonial masters, and how dem fight am, wey make Africans begin see demself as one people. == Traditional Oral Historiography and Early Written History (Pidgin Translation) == For Africa, the way people dey tell history no start with book. E start with talking. People like griots for West Africa, old people, and “men of memory” na dem dey talk the history. Africans believe say history na how human being dey live with gods, ancestors and nature. For African societies, na everybody for the community get mouth for the story. Dem go use wetin dem see, hear, remember, dream or even vision take build story wey dem go dey pass from one generation to another – sometimes with music and performance. For dis oral tradition, time fit no be straight like calendar; sometimes e be like myth or social story. Even ancestors be part of the actors. Many origin stories dey wey help group define who dem be and join other groups. E also help form religious beliefs and political power. Places wey no get king or central government dey use clan or family stories pass. Africa no just dey talk story – some people also write. Ancient Egypt people get hieroglyphics (dem kind drawing-writing), and dem use am write history since 1580 BCE. When Rosetta Stone come out for 1799, dem fit decode the hieroglyphs. But na mostly European scholars dey study am. Books like ''Periplus of the Erythraean Sea'' (230 CE) and ''Ptolemy’s Geography'' (140 CE) talk about Africa. For Aksum (now Ethiopia), dem write Geʽez inscriptions for stone and dem talk about king reigns, wars, and charity. When Islam spread, many African scholars start to write history for Arabic. People like al-Masudi, al-Bakri, and Ibn Battuta write about African societies. But dem like Muslim kings pass and no talk well about non-Muslims. For West Africa and Swahili areas, people use Arabic or dem own script called Ajami to write local languages like Hausa, Yoruba, Swahili, and Fula. Books like ''Kilwa Chronicle'', ''Timbuktu Chronicles'', ''Kitab Gonja'', ''Funj Chronicle'' and ''Kano Chronicle'' carry our oral stories enter book. Europeans start to write plenty things about African coast from 15th century. But dem talk say Africa be strange, warlike and backward. Portuguese write plenty things for 16th century but dem hide am to keep trade secrets. Later, English, French, Dutch and German people begin write too. Dem focus on trade – like which area get wetin, where dem dey buy/sell, and who control market. Some early books include Job Ludolf’s ''Historia Aethiopica'' (1681) and Dalzel’s ''History of Dahomy'' (1793). Missionaries wey come later try write too but dem no understand African religion well. Few try learn African language and write better records. Even for Enlightenment time, philosophers like Hegel still talk say Africa no get history. == Colonial Historiography == Before colonial time, most African societies no dey write dema history; dem dey use oral tradition — like storytelling, proverb, song — to pass info. But when colonialists come, dem write Africa ein history base on only European point of view, wey dem no consider di African people demma side. Dem focus on soldiers, colonial officers, and oda white people wey come control Africa. Dis be all because dem believe say white man be better pass Black man — dem see Africans as primitive, inferior, and stuck for past. Dem come dey promote one idea called '''Hamitic Hypothesis''', wey talk say only light-skinned Africans (wey dem believe say dem no be real Africans) be civilised. Dem use dat idea talk say all di development for Africa no come from Black people demselves but from outsiders. Plenty of di European historians dem no dey respect oral history; dem talk say Africa no get real history unless Europeans write am. But small group of dem try collect stories and archaeology info to tell di African story proper — but nobody really dey respect dem work dat time. Meanwhile, some African historians wey live under colonial rule like '''Carl Christian Reindorf''', '''Samuel Johnson''', '''Apollo Kaggwa''', and '''J. B. Danquah''' write books to protect demma people ein history. Still, people no take dem serious like di white man ein books. == Postcolonial Historiography == When Africa start fight for independence during di 1950s and 1960s, new African historians come rise. Dem want rewrite African history in we own voice. Dem come reject all di colonial lies and promote African pride. Dis new wave come use '''oral tradition''' plus archaeology, language study, and even local knowledge to build proper African history. For Nigeria, di '''Ibadan School of History''', led by '''Kenneth Dike''' and '''Jacob Ade Ajayi''', come champion dis idea. Ghana get '''Legon School''', Tanzania get '''Dar es Salaam School''', and Senegal-Gambia side get '''Dakar School''' — dem all dey prove say African history no dey depend on white people ein version. UNESCO sef support African historians make dem write one big project — '''General History of Africa''' — from African scholars across di continent. But some of dis new nationalist history too get issue — dem too dey copy Western way of thinking, focus too much on kings and politics, and sometimes dem no dey talk enough about how colonialism really mess Africa up. == From Hope to Frustration == By di late 1960s and 1970s, some African scholars start vex say leaders wey fight for independence no really help di people — dem chop power, create corruption, and turn neo-colonial. Dis be where '''Walter Rodney''' enter with ein book '''"How Europe Underdeveloped Africa"'''. He talk say slavery and colonialism destroy Africa ein natural development path, and make we depend on white man forever. He challenge di Western idea of development and promote Marxist (socialist) thinking. Dis new Marxist-African historiography now shift di focus from just leaders and kings to normal people — farmers, women, poor men. == Contemporary Historiography == By di 1980s, African universities dey struggle. Brain drain start — smart African scholars move go abroad. Di original excitement for African history start fade. But den too, people start do '''"history from below"''' — tell di stories of ordinary people instead of just kings and leaders. Scholars like '''Valentin Mudimbe''' come argue say African scholars still dey depend too much on Western ideas, and we for build our own African way of thinking and knowing — called '''African epistemology'''. South Africa history sef shake when apartheid end — white people come face dem past. Elsewhere, people begin focus on clan history, village story, and community memory. But some areas like economic history — money, trade, production — suffer neglect from di 1980s till now, even tho e still dey important. African universities between '''Sahara and Zambezi''' still no dey teach am well. Today, many African historians dey focus on current issues like poverty and global capitalism, but dem dey neglect early African history because e dey hard to collect info and di oral tradition dey vanish as elders die (COVID-19 and HIV/AIDS spoil ein side). We get challenge say most African history still dey write in English or French, so di local people no dey access am. Scholars like '''Funso Afolayan''' dey talk say we for write history for we people, not just for white man audience. Still, we never build full '''African philosophy of history''' wey go stand independent from Western ideas. == Pathing the Future == For ein book '''"Decolonizing African History"''' (2024), '''Toyin Falola''' talk say we for change di way we dey learn and teach history — make we use African knowledge systems. We for dey ask: wetin African people need to know about dema past to solve African problems? E dey say we for take oral traditions and early local writings serious to rebuild we history properly and proudly. == Periodisation == How people take divide African history into periods still dey base on European style. Dem go talk say Africa get “ancient”, “medieval” and “modern” — but dis no fit African realities. African historians dey argue say we for base di time periods on internal African change, not just contact with foreigners. Some like '''Basil Davidson''' talk say Africa ein “ancient” time end around 1000 CE. Others say maybe di Arab conquest period be better marker. Still, no agreed way dey yet to periodise African history in a way wey fit everywhere across di continent. == Oral Tradition == Oral tradition na how African societies pass knowledge from generation to generation — through talk, story, proverb, music. African culture dey respect di spoken word — we dey see am as powerful and important. Unlike books, oral tradition dey involve emotion, performance, memory, and communal participation. People dey perform stories to entertain and educate at the same time. Historians now dey go field to record and transcribe oral stories, but dat process get challenge — like language barrier, trust issue, and wahala from translating meaning correctly. One way wey dem dey try get dates from oral history be through '''lists of rulers''', and use '''generational average''' (about 27 years per generation) to estimate dates. Scholars like '''Barbara Cooper''' and '''Karin Barber''' talk say we for see oral history as performance — not just word-for-word truth but as expression of cultural power, memory, and emotion. == Academic Debate on Oral Tradition == For 1960s, historians like '''Jan Vansina''' defend oral tradition as legit history method. But dem face critique — some say oral tradition just support present power structures (presentist critique), others say e dey full of myth and symbolism (cosmological critique). '''Joseph Miller''' counter di cosmological one by saying we fit learn plenty if we study how people dey interpret memory, politics, and struggle. But di critique about present-day bias still dey hard to fully answer. Some say we for also look at di life of di storyteller, not just di tradition — make we understand wetin e dey try say and how e life influence di message. Others say outsiders (like European historians) no fit fully grasp di tradition unless dem get insider perspective == Economic History – How Money Matter Take Be for Africa == Economic history na di study of di past wey use economics to understand how money, business, and trade take go. For Africa, dem get three big ways people dey reason economic history: neoclassical, Marxist, and di one wey dey based on dependency theory. Di main journal wey dey publish tins for this topic be ''African Economic History'', dem start am 1976. From 1980s to early 2000s, African history nor dey show for big economic journals. But now e dey come back small small, mostly na modern history dem dey focus. Most African scholars dey work for abroad sake of no job for house, and this one dey make ideas nor too mix. Some oyibo scholars still dey do "neocolonial book sense", wey no help African way of seeing tins. Gareth Austin talk say make people stop dey use European ideas to judge African past, say Africa own story different. E talk say make people compare countries and use dem to test theories. Dem divide Africa economic history into four time: # First na early people and agriculture time. # Second na 16th century with slave trade. # Third na 19th century after dem stop slave trade till colonial time. # Last one na after independence from 20th century come till now. People still dey argue whether culture dey affect how people dey do business to make profit. '''Neoclassical approach''' dey focus on market and trade—early writers na Kenneth Dike and A. G. Hopkins. Dem wan show say Africa get trade before colonial masters come. But dem forget production part. '''Marxist approach''' na to use Marx idea to check how people dey work and produce. Dem like Jean Suret-Canale and Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch. Dem believe say colonial time suppress African way of working. But A. G. Hopkins say di theory no fit Africa well. '''Dependency theory''' say Europe turn Africa to underdog. People like Immanuel Wallerstein, Samir Amin, and Giovanni Arrighi dey lead this idea. Dem say Africa dey produce for Europe, no be for itself. '''New economic history''' use computer and statistics to check numbers. People like Daron Acemoglu and James Robinson believe say colonialism make rich areas poor and poor areas better. But dem nor dey look long time well and e dey simplify history. == Military History – War Tori for Africa == === Military history na how war and fight take change people, culture, economy and how countries relate. Oral tradition no too dey talk about war. === For long time, people no too dey study African war history—people dey fear say to talk about war go make people feel say Africans love violence. Dem first study how people resist colonial rule. But from 1990s, dem begin look how soldiers and veterans live life. Now military history don become serious subject. Michelle Moyd talk say to always say African war na "mindless" na racist talk. People like Roy Doron say dis be "bad myth say Africa just dey fight anyhow". Historians now dey study how people become soldiers, and how war affect people life. Feminist historians dey look women like di Dahomey warriors. Dem no dey glorify war—dem just wan understand how violence start and how we fit stop am. == Environmental History – Nature and Human Matter for Africa == This one dey study how nature and human life dey connect. Some people (wey dem dey call "declinist") believe say modern development dey spoil environment. Others (dem be "inclinist") believe say small development with African knowledge go help. Before 20th century, people believe say nature dey shape culture—dem call am environmental determinism. Later, people believe say science go conquer nature—this na cultural determinism. Marxists say capitalism dey spoil environment and moral values. Di idea of "wild Africa" no true again—historians don kick am out. But people still dey argue nature and culture different. Africa get long human story, but environment change make tins hard. Slave trade, colonisation, World Wars, and population wahala all affect environment. Famines and sickness dey blame on say Africa no domesticate environment well. But Emmanuel Kreike say this na oyibo way to look development. Instead, e say “environmental infrastructure” na better way—where people and nature dey work together. Conservation talk show how colonial govts close land from locals. Postmodernism help make people use oral history and African knowledge to understand nature better. == Animal History – Animal Dem Own Side for African History == This one na new area. Historians don begin dey study how animals take affect human life. But before, dem nor dey focus on animals. Some people accuse animal historians say dem dey put human voice inside animal mouth (ventriloquism). Now dem dey try avoid that. Some call am "animal-sensitive history" or "multi-species history". This area get link with African way of seeing living tins and dey join environmental history sometimes. == Afrocentrism – Africa for Center of Africa Own History == Afrocentrism come from Pan-Africanism (like Marcus Garvey, W. E. B. Du Bois) and Négritude (like Aimé Césaire, Senghor). For 20th century, African-Americans begin focus more on Africa matter. Dem say African history suppose help black people break free from white domination. Afrocentrism dey challenge Eurocentric ideas. E say history suppose dey told from African point of view. Afrocentricity, wey Molefi Kete Asante bring, say African people history suppose base on their own culture, not oyibo idea. Afrocentrists believe say Ancient Egypt na core of African history. Asante and Diop say Egypt for Africa be like Greece/Rome for Europe.<ref name=":0">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_historiography#Afrocentrism</ref> But Afrocentrism nor dey part of mainstream history. E dey more like popular history and sometimes people dey criticise am say e turn black supremacy. Still, e popular for African-Americans wey dey fight for equality. Some historians talk say e nor follow recent African history research, and e get too much generalisation.<ref name=":0" /> Few African scholars dey show interest for Afrocentrism, maybe because race matter no too dey strong for many African countries today.<ref name=":0" /> 4r6o05u8uug9snd80ail2vxpoiqtn7d 14 18117 67161 2025-06-29T18:56:53Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 67161 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 18118 67162 2025-06-29T18:57:10Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 67162 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 18119 67163 2025-06-29T18:57:22Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 67163 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 18120 67164 2025-06-29T18:57:40Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 67164 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 18121 67165 2025-06-29T18:57:50Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 67165 wikitext text/x-wiki phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 14 18122 67166 2025-06-29T18:57:59Z DaSupremo 9 Fresh category 67166 wikitext 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phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 0 18155 67269 2025-06-30T00:53:20Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 Created by translating the page "[[:en:Special:Redirect/revision/1294613017|Menelik II]]" 67269 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. hl3o1nze3vlaa5jca8bm2e77xjaw511 67273 67269 2025-06-30T01:03:50Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de 'Databox' 67273 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. hqbfuotwn8xydhuuehjskomnmxbtkfa 67274 67273 2025-06-30T01:05:12Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Ein early life' 67274 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == kdsq4bz7ge8crnt23iesg8ovygxpz2f 67277 67274 2025-06-30T01:11:27Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Ein early life */ 67277 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> f16dfnubfn4yoruqq0l5954lbmznwxp 67278 67277 2025-06-30T01:12:08Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'King of Shewa' 67278 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == dttahb5vuoxth4hrw7fiinl4srysrie 67279 67278 2025-06-30T01:16:34Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* King of Shewa */ 67279 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> qyuyliadn1kmjp90jcz1eo5wfh1z3yf 67280 67279 2025-06-30T01:19:00Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* King of Shewa */ 67280 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. 6oyhop724zmk4lccnzs43enrmxcfpwy 67281 67280 2025-06-30T01:19:39Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Succession' 67281 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == 9nyhjr5adxzdc5y0y6op8wbr7u8935f 67283 67281 2025-06-30T01:23:16Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Succession */ 67283 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. 2ks97rq1vykxbaxx4i0va0nct684tgf 67285 67283 2025-06-30T01:25:26Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians' 67285 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == lo62k2obs8yh8gf1e2q1y85sij53j1j 67286 67285 2025-06-30T01:26:10Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians */ I don add de sub-header 'Conquests' 67286 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== 4lw7gshn2oe87g32cf0wmm8o8mi4888 67287 67286 2025-06-30T01:33:39Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Conquests */ 67287 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}}Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> irheneic99juwekm91z5ntvtu1om98p 67288 67287 2025-06-30T01:34:33Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Conquests */ 67288 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> jqybhedpj4dmi7zxlv5juop6ci4u9oz 67289 67288 2025-06-30T01:37:51Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Conquests */ 67289 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> n001jit1x1hr9gdpj9q0rxoo0094vvh 67290 67289 2025-06-30T01:46:11Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Conquests */ 67290 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> 36twh5gr79uee32kods18ki19ozrx1a 67291 67290 2025-06-30T01:56:17Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Foundation of Addis Ababa' 67291 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== m2a3mkfuee01huc9mrempm1zx8t417h 67292 67291 2025-06-30T01:58:47Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Foundation of Addis Ababa */ 67292 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> aibokifju9poqbtyn5dvh168k3g289u 67293 67292 2025-06-30T01:59:47Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'De Great Famine (1888–1892)' 67293 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== 539xcfpw6tm36yvj4i38xh6t2if07mi 67294 67293 2025-06-30T02:05:42Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Wuchale Treaty' 67294 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== 5u3szjw2ly29gavxluo6in89eayeb91 67295 67294 2025-06-30T02:10:25Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Wuchale Treaty */ 67295 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. m2hsdyu1vgbs5es12na9fxyquprywar 67296 67295 2025-06-30T02:11:15Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de sub-header 'Italo-Ethiopian War' 67296 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== j4vmvo6clwfq8ugb32kohavdvvpkxns 67297 67296 2025-06-30T02:18:37Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Italo-Ethiopian War */ 67297 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> av5gdhshkd4z184q0jitz1fi2t4xftp 67298 67297 2025-06-30T02:22:12Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Italo-Ethiopian War */ 67298 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> hy2r6fvdoddwrr4ky7nr83ifeymxqy7 67299 67298 2025-06-30T02:30:03Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Italo-Ethiopian War */ 67299 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> Di emperor self carry im army go attack Italian force wey Major Toselli lead for 7 December 1895 for Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Di Ethiopians jam 350 Eritrean irregulars for di left side, dem tumbled under di Ethiopian wahala, naim make Toselli send two companies of Italian infantry wey stop di Ethiopian push.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli dey happy for im supposed win, di main Ethiopian attack come drop for im right side, make Toselli order retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di emperor best general, Ras Makonnen, don take over di road wey go back to Eritrea, and launch heavy surprise attack wey scatter di Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di Battle of Amba Alagi end with 2,150 Italian men, 1,000 men and 20 officers don loss dem life.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Ras Makonnen no waste time, him follow up de win wey he beat General Arimondi, make de Italians retreat to the fort for Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen come lay siege for de fort, plus for morning of 7 January 1896, the people wey dey defend de fort see big red tent among de besiegers, e mean say de emperor don show face.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, de emperor elite Shoan infantry capture the fort well, and dem brush off desperate Italian wey wan take back de well.<ref name="ReferenceE2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 19 January 1896, the fort commander, Major Galliano, wey him men dey suffer dehydration, raise white flag surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE3">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Major Galliano and him men fit march out, drop their weapons, den go free.<ref name="ReferenceE4">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik talk say he free the Italians 'to show my Christian faith,' say the wahala wey he get na with the Italian government led by Prime Minister Francesco Crispi wey dey try conquer him nation, no be de ordinary Italian soldiers wey dem force join the fight.<ref name="ReferenceE5">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik dey show plenty kindness to di defenders of Fort Mekele, e fit be like e dey do some mind game. E don talk to French and Russian diplomats, so e sabi say di war and Crispi no dey sweet for Italy. One of di main things wey Crispi dey use for his propaganda na di wahala wey dem dey talk say dem do di Italian POWs. For Menelik eye, allowing di Italian POWs make dem go free and no touch dem na di best way to clear dis propaganda and scatter support for Crispi. p8co98lwvgimgd36wrm46qt6odyxoe9 67300 67299 2025-06-30T02:37:01Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Italo-Ethiopian War */ 67300 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> Di emperor self carry im army go attack Italian force wey Major Toselli lead for 7 December 1895 for Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Di Ethiopians jam 350 Eritrean irregulars for di left side, dem tumbled under di Ethiopian wahala, naim make Toselli send two companies of Italian infantry wey stop di Ethiopian push.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli dey happy for im supposed win, di main Ethiopian attack come drop for im right side, make Toselli order retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di emperor best general, Ras Makonnen, don take over di road wey go back to Eritrea, and launch heavy surprise attack wey scatter di Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di Battle of Amba Alagi end with 2,150 Italian men, 1,000 men and 20 officers don loss dem life.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Ras Makonnen no waste time, him follow up de win wey he beat General Arimondi, make de Italians retreat to the fort for Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen come lay siege for de fort, plus for morning of 7 January 1896, the people wey dey defend de fort see big red tent among de besiegers, e mean say de emperor don show face.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, de emperor elite Shoan infantry capture the fort well, and dem brush off desperate Italian wey wan take back de well.<ref name="ReferenceE2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 19 January 1896, the fort commander, Major Galliano, wey him men dey suffer dehydration, raise white flag surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE3">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Major Galliano and him men fit march out, drop their weapons, den go free.<ref name="ReferenceE4">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik talk say he free the Italians 'to show my Christian faith,' say the wahala wey he get na with the Italian government led by Prime Minister Francesco Crispi wey dey try conquer him nation, no be de ordinary Italian soldiers wey dem force join the fight.<ref name="ReferenceE5">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik dey show plenty kindness to di defenders of Fort Mekele, e fit be like e dey do some mind game. E don talk to French and Russian diplomats, so e sabi say di war and Crispi no dey sweet for Italy. One of di main things wey Crispi dey use for his propaganda na di wahala wey dem dey talk say dem do di Italian POWs. For Menelik eye, allowing di Italian POWs make dem go free and no touch dem na di best way to clear dis propaganda and scatter support for Crispi. [[File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Emperor Menelik II at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]. ''[[:en:Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]'', 1898]] Crispi don send another 15,000 men go Horn of Africa and tell di main Italian commander, General Oreste Baratieri, make e finish di 'barbarians'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=209–210}}</ref> As Baratieri dey waste time, Menelik gats pull back on 17 February 1896 as him big army dey finish food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=210}}</ref> After Crispi send one insulting telegram dey call Baratieri coward, on 28 February 1896, di Italians decide say dem go fight Menelik.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=210–211}}</ref> On 1 March 1896, di two armies meet for Adwa. Di Ethiopians come out with victory. As victory land for Adwa and dem don scatter Italian army, Eritrea dey Menelik hand but him no gree occupy am. E be like say Menelik sabi pass wetin Europe people dey think. Him see say if e attack, Italians go bring all dem strength come disturb him country.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.L.|title=The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa|date=1988|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=0-7475-0113-0|edition=1|location=London}}</ref> So, instead, him wan fix the peace wey Italians don scatter with demma wahala seven years ago. Wen him sign de treaty, Menelik show say e dey sharp for politics as e promise each nation wetin dem go fit gain and make sure sey na him country go benefit, no be another. After all, dem finally agree for Treaty of Addis Ababa. Italy gree recognize Ethiopia independence, as dem talk for Article 3 of de treaty. France den Britain too sign am. plus if one nation try to reject am, de other two go no gree, sekof no country wan make any other country gain more power. on9q7zmfsd66c9k90rqyu8m5cgkk25e 67318 67300 2025-06-30T11:38:45Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 I don add de header 'Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign' 67318 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> Di emperor self carry im army go attack Italian force wey Major Toselli lead for 7 December 1895 for Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Di Ethiopians jam 350 Eritrean irregulars for di left side, dem tumbled under di Ethiopian wahala, naim make Toselli send two companies of Italian infantry wey stop di Ethiopian push.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli dey happy for im supposed win, di main Ethiopian attack come drop for im right side, make Toselli order retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di emperor best general, Ras Makonnen, don take over di road wey go back to Eritrea, and launch heavy surprise attack wey scatter di Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di Battle of Amba Alagi end with 2,150 Italian men, 1,000 men and 20 officers don loss dem life.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Ras Makonnen no waste time, him follow up de win wey he beat General Arimondi, make de Italians retreat to the fort for Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen come lay siege for de fort, plus for morning of 7 January 1896, the people wey dey defend de fort see big red tent among de besiegers, e mean say de emperor don show face.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, de emperor elite Shoan infantry capture the fort well, and dem brush off desperate Italian wey wan take back de well.<ref name="ReferenceE2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 19 January 1896, the fort commander, Major Galliano, wey him men dey suffer dehydration, raise white flag surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE3">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Major Galliano and him men fit march out, drop their weapons, den go free.<ref name="ReferenceE4">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik talk say he free the Italians 'to show my Christian faith,' say the wahala wey he get na with the Italian government led by Prime Minister Francesco Crispi wey dey try conquer him nation, no be de ordinary Italian soldiers wey dem force join the fight.<ref name="ReferenceE5">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik dey show plenty kindness to di defenders of Fort Mekele, e fit be like e dey do some mind game. E don talk to French and Russian diplomats, so e sabi say di war and Crispi no dey sweet for Italy. One of di main things wey Crispi dey use for his propaganda na di wahala wey dem dey talk say dem do di Italian POWs. For Menelik eye, allowing di Italian POWs make dem go free and no touch dem na di best way to clear dis propaganda and scatter support for Crispi. [[File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Emperor Menelik II at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]. ''[[:en:Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]'', 1898]] Crispi don send another 15,000 men go Horn of Africa and tell di main Italian commander, General Oreste Baratieri, make e finish di 'barbarians'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=209–210}}</ref> As Baratieri dey waste time, Menelik gats pull back on 17 February 1896 as him big army dey finish food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=210}}</ref> After Crispi send one insulting telegram dey call Baratieri coward, on 28 February 1896, di Italians decide say dem go fight Menelik.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=210–211}}</ref> On 1 March 1896, di two armies meet for Adwa. Di Ethiopians come out with victory. As victory land for Adwa and dem don scatter Italian army, Eritrea dey Menelik hand but him no gree occupy am. E be like say Menelik sabi pass wetin Europe people dey think. Him see say if e attack, Italians go bring all dem strength come disturb him country.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.L.|title=The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa|date=1988|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=0-7475-0113-0|edition=1|location=London}}</ref> So, instead, him wan fix the peace wey Italians don scatter with demma wahala seven years ago. Wen him sign de treaty, Menelik show say e dey sharp for politics as e promise each nation wetin dem go fit gain and make sure sey na him country go benefit, no be another. After all, dem finally agree for Treaty of Addis Ababa. Italy gree recognize Ethiopia independence, as dem talk for Article 3 of de treaty. France den Britain too sign am. plus if one nation try to reject am, de other two go no gree, sekof no country wan make any other country gain more power. == Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign == h3ghxlawv0f3oxunch85h8w5pih16qs 67319 67318 2025-06-30T11:39:25Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign */ I don add de sub-header 'Foreign policy' 67319 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> Di emperor self carry im army go attack Italian force wey Major Toselli lead for 7 December 1895 for Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Di Ethiopians jam 350 Eritrean irregulars for di left side, dem tumbled under di Ethiopian wahala, naim make Toselli send two companies of Italian infantry wey stop di Ethiopian push.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli dey happy for im supposed win, di main Ethiopian attack come drop for im right side, make Toselli order retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di emperor best general, Ras Makonnen, don take over di road wey go back to Eritrea, and launch heavy surprise attack wey scatter di Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di Battle of Amba Alagi end with 2,150 Italian men, 1,000 men and 20 officers don loss dem life.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Ras Makonnen no waste time, him follow up de win wey he beat General Arimondi, make de Italians retreat to the fort for Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen come lay siege for de fort, plus for morning of 7 January 1896, the people wey dey defend de fort see big red tent among de besiegers, e mean say de emperor don show face.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, de emperor elite Shoan infantry capture the fort well, and dem brush off desperate Italian wey wan take back de well.<ref name="ReferenceE2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 19 January 1896, the fort commander, Major Galliano, wey him men dey suffer dehydration, raise white flag surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE3">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Major Galliano and him men fit march out, drop their weapons, den go free.<ref name="ReferenceE4">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik talk say he free the Italians 'to show my Christian faith,' say the wahala wey he get na with the Italian government led by Prime Minister Francesco Crispi wey dey try conquer him nation, no be de ordinary Italian soldiers wey dem force join the fight.<ref name="ReferenceE5">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik dey show plenty kindness to di defenders of Fort Mekele, e fit be like e dey do some mind game. E don talk to French and Russian diplomats, so e sabi say di war and Crispi no dey sweet for Italy. One of di main things wey Crispi dey use for his propaganda na di wahala wey dem dey talk say dem do di Italian POWs. For Menelik eye, allowing di Italian POWs make dem go free and no touch dem na di best way to clear dis propaganda and scatter support for Crispi. [[File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Emperor Menelik II at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]. ''[[:en:Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]'', 1898]] Crispi don send another 15,000 men go Horn of Africa and tell di main Italian commander, General Oreste Baratieri, make e finish di 'barbarians'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=209–210}}</ref> As Baratieri dey waste time, Menelik gats pull back on 17 February 1896 as him big army dey finish food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=210}}</ref> After Crispi send one insulting telegram dey call Baratieri coward, on 28 February 1896, di Italians decide say dem go fight Menelik.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=210–211}}</ref> On 1 March 1896, di two armies meet for Adwa. Di Ethiopians come out with victory. As victory land for Adwa and dem don scatter Italian army, Eritrea dey Menelik hand but him no gree occupy am. E be like say Menelik sabi pass wetin Europe people dey think. Him see say if e attack, Italians go bring all dem strength come disturb him country.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.L.|title=The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa|date=1988|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=0-7475-0113-0|edition=1|location=London}}</ref> So, instead, him wan fix the peace wey Italians don scatter with demma wahala seven years ago. Wen him sign de treaty, Menelik show say e dey sharp for politics as e promise each nation wetin dem go fit gain and make sure sey na him country go benefit, no be another. After all, dem finally agree for Treaty of Addis Ababa. Italy gree recognize Ethiopia independence, as dem talk for Article 3 of de treaty. France den Britain too sign am. plus if one nation try to reject am, de other two go no gree, sekof no country wan make any other country gain more power. == Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign == ===== Foreign policy ===== bxmf1a6girajimgpwocsvi7i9l1d5cl 67320 67319 2025-06-30T11:47:01Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Foreign policy */ 67320 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> Di emperor self carry im army go attack Italian force wey Major Toselli lead for 7 December 1895 for Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Di Ethiopians jam 350 Eritrean irregulars for di left side, dem tumbled under di Ethiopian wahala, naim make Toselli send two companies of Italian infantry wey stop di Ethiopian push.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli dey happy for im supposed win, di main Ethiopian attack come drop for im right side, make Toselli order retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di emperor best general, Ras Makonnen, don take over di road wey go back to Eritrea, and launch heavy surprise attack wey scatter di Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di Battle of Amba Alagi end with 2,150 Italian men, 1,000 men and 20 officers don loss dem life.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Ras Makonnen no waste time, him follow up de win wey he beat General Arimondi, make de Italians retreat to the fort for Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen come lay siege for de fort, plus for morning of 7 January 1896, the people wey dey defend de fort see big red tent among de besiegers, e mean say de emperor don show face.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, de emperor elite Shoan infantry capture the fort well, and dem brush off desperate Italian wey wan take back de well.<ref name="ReferenceE2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 19 January 1896, the fort commander, Major Galliano, wey him men dey suffer dehydration, raise white flag surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE3">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Major Galliano and him men fit march out, drop their weapons, den go free.<ref name="ReferenceE4">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik talk say he free the Italians 'to show my Christian faith,' say the wahala wey he get na with the Italian government led by Prime Minister Francesco Crispi wey dey try conquer him nation, no be de ordinary Italian soldiers wey dem force join the fight.<ref name="ReferenceE5">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik dey show plenty kindness to di defenders of Fort Mekele, e fit be like e dey do some mind game. E don talk to French and Russian diplomats, so e sabi say di war and Crispi no dey sweet for Italy. One of di main things wey Crispi dey use for his propaganda na di wahala wey dem dey talk say dem do di Italian POWs. For Menelik eye, allowing di Italian POWs make dem go free and no touch dem na di best way to clear dis propaganda and scatter support for Crispi. [[File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Emperor Menelik II at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]. ''[[:en:Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]'', 1898]] Crispi don send another 15,000 men go Horn of Africa and tell di main Italian commander, General Oreste Baratieri, make e finish di 'barbarians'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=209–210}}</ref> As Baratieri dey waste time, Menelik gats pull back on 17 February 1896 as him big army dey finish food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=210}}</ref> After Crispi send one insulting telegram dey call Baratieri coward, on 28 February 1896, di Italians decide say dem go fight Menelik.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=210–211}}</ref> On 1 March 1896, di two armies meet for Adwa. Di Ethiopians come out with victory. As victory land for Adwa and dem don scatter Italian army, Eritrea dey Menelik hand but him no gree occupy am. E be like say Menelik sabi pass wetin Europe people dey think. Him see say if e attack, Italians go bring all dem strength come disturb him country.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.L.|title=The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa|date=1988|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=0-7475-0113-0|edition=1|location=London}}</ref> So, instead, him wan fix the peace wey Italians don scatter with demma wahala seven years ago. Wen him sign de treaty, Menelik show say e dey sharp for politics as e promise each nation wetin dem go fit gain and make sure sey na him country go benefit, no be another. After all, dem finally agree for Treaty of Addis Ababa. Italy gree recognize Ethiopia independence, as dem talk for Article 3 of de treaty. France den Britain too sign am. plus if one nation try to reject am, de other two go no gree, sekof no country wan make any other country gain more power. == Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign == ===== Foreign policy ===== [[File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|right|thumb|After de Treaty wey[[:en:Treaty_of_Addis_Ababa|Treaty of Addis Ababa]] sign for 1896, Europeans sabi say Ethiopia dey. Menelik come finalize signing treaties with dem Europeans to mark di border of modern Ethiopia by 1904.]] After Menelik win for de First Italo-Ethiopian War, European people no waste time to change how dem dey relate with Ethiopian Empire. Delegation from UK and France—wey dem get obodo next to Ethiopia—come enter Ethiopian capital sharp sharp to negotiate their own treaties with dis new powerhouse. As dem quickly take advantage of Italy wahala, French influence burst up well well and France become one of the biggest European powers for Menelik court.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> For December 1896, French diplomatic team land for Addis Ababa, and on 20 March 1897, dem sign treaty wey dem describe as "véritable traité d'alliance."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> E for turn, as French wahala dey grow for Ethiopia, London people dey fear say French go fit take control of Blue Nile plus push British commot from Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> fkvvb6o9r76r5a6ah7u9o7tsrglx6qq 67321 67320 2025-06-30T11:48:48Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Foreign policy */ 67321 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> Di emperor self carry im army go attack Italian force wey Major Toselli lead for 7 December 1895 for Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Di Ethiopians jam 350 Eritrean irregulars for di left side, dem tumbled under di Ethiopian wahala, naim make Toselli send two companies of Italian infantry wey stop di Ethiopian push.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli dey happy for im supposed win, di main Ethiopian attack come drop for im right side, make Toselli order retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di emperor best general, Ras Makonnen, don take over di road wey go back to Eritrea, and launch heavy surprise attack wey scatter di Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di Battle of Amba Alagi end with 2,150 Italian men, 1,000 men and 20 officers don loss dem life.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Ras Makonnen no waste time, him follow up de win wey he beat General Arimondi, make de Italians retreat to the fort for Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen come lay siege for de fort, plus for morning of 7 January 1896, the people wey dey defend de fort see big red tent among de besiegers, e mean say de emperor don show face.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, de emperor elite Shoan infantry capture the fort well, and dem brush off desperate Italian wey wan take back de well.<ref name="ReferenceE2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 19 January 1896, the fort commander, Major Galliano, wey him men dey suffer dehydration, raise white flag surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE3">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Major Galliano and him men fit march out, drop their weapons, den go free.<ref name="ReferenceE4">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik talk say he free the Italians 'to show my Christian faith,' say the wahala wey he get na with the Italian government led by Prime Minister Francesco Crispi wey dey try conquer him nation, no be de ordinary Italian soldiers wey dem force join the fight.<ref name="ReferenceE5">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik dey show plenty kindness to di defenders of Fort Mekele, e fit be like e dey do some mind game. E don talk to French and Russian diplomats, so e sabi say di war and Crispi no dey sweet for Italy. One of di main things wey Crispi dey use for his propaganda na di wahala wey dem dey talk say dem do di Italian POWs. For Menelik eye, allowing di Italian POWs make dem go free and no touch dem na di best way to clear dis propaganda and scatter support for Crispi. [[File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Emperor Menelik II at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]. ''[[:en:Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]'', 1898]] Crispi don send another 15,000 men go Horn of Africa and tell di main Italian commander, General Oreste Baratieri, make e finish di 'barbarians'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=209–210}}</ref> As Baratieri dey waste time, Menelik gats pull back on 17 February 1896 as him big army dey finish food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=210}}</ref> After Crispi send one insulting telegram dey call Baratieri coward, on 28 February 1896, di Italians decide say dem go fight Menelik.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=210–211}}</ref> On 1 March 1896, di two armies meet for Adwa. Di Ethiopians come out with victory. As victory land for Adwa and dem don scatter Italian army, Eritrea dey Menelik hand but him no gree occupy am. E be like say Menelik sabi pass wetin Europe people dey think. Him see say if e attack, Italians go bring all dem strength come disturb him country.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.L.|title=The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa|date=1988|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=0-7475-0113-0|edition=1|location=London}}</ref> So, instead, him wan fix the peace wey Italians don scatter with demma wahala seven years ago. Wen him sign de treaty, Menelik show say e dey sharp for politics as e promise each nation wetin dem go fit gain and make sure sey na him country go benefit, no be another. After all, dem finally agree for Treaty of Addis Ababa. Italy gree recognize Ethiopia independence, as dem talk for Article 3 of de treaty. France den Britain too sign am. plus if one nation try to reject am, de other two go no gree, sekof no country wan make any other country gain more power. == Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign == ===== Foreign policy ===== [[File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|right|thumb|After de Treaty wey[[:en:Treaty_of_Addis_Ababa|Treaty of Addis Ababa]] sign for 1896, Europeans sabi say Ethiopia dey. Menelik come finalize signing treaties with dem Europeans to mark di border of modern Ethiopia by 1904.]] After Menelik win for de First Italo-Ethiopian War, European people no waste time to change how dem dey relate with Ethiopian Empire. Delegation from UK and France—wey dem get obodo next to Ethiopia—come enter Ethiopian capital sharp sharp to negotiate their own treaties with dis new powerhouse. As dem quickly take advantage of Italy wahala, French influence burst up well well and France become one of the biggest European powers for Menelik court.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> For December 1896, French diplomatic team land for Addis Ababa, and on 20 March 1897, dem sign treaty wey dem describe as "véritable traité d'alliance."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> E for turn, as French wahala dey grow for Ethiopia, London people dey fear say French go fit take control of Blue Nile plus push British commot from Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> One night before Adwa battle, two Sudanese guys from Mahdiyya come meet Menelik for him camp wey dey Adwa. Dem wan talk how dem go join force fight Italians. For July 1896, one Ethiopian representative dey Abdallahi ibn Muhammad court for Omdurman. British dey fear say Menelik go support Mahdists revolt, so dem send diplomatic team go Ethiopia, den on 14 May 1897, dem sign Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty. Menelik tell British say he no go support Mahdists and he call dem enemy of him country, as he go gree give dem part of Haud area wey dey northeast, wey be traditional Somali grazing land. For December 1897, Ras Makonnen lead expedition go fight Mahdists to take de gold area wey dem dey call Benishangul-Gumuz.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Oliver|first1=Ronald|title=The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 6|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=663}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Milkias|first1=Paulos|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f71M3BC6TtIC&q=pg=PA118|title=The Battle of Adwa Reflections on Ethiopia's Historic Victory Against European Colonialism|date=2005|publisher=B&T Database Management|isbn=9780875864150|pages=121}}</ref> q91f308y4ks82zolif9m3lh6b5lrurf 67322 67321 2025-06-30T11:49:33Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign */ I don add de sub-header 'Introducing new technology' 67322 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> Di emperor self carry im army go attack Italian force wey Major Toselli lead for 7 December 1895 for Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Di Ethiopians jam 350 Eritrean irregulars for di left side, dem tumbled under di Ethiopian wahala, naim make Toselli send two companies of Italian infantry wey stop di Ethiopian push.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli dey happy for im supposed win, di main Ethiopian attack come drop for im right side, make Toselli order retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di emperor best general, Ras Makonnen, don take over di road wey go back to Eritrea, and launch heavy surprise attack wey scatter di Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di Battle of Amba Alagi end with 2,150 Italian men, 1,000 men and 20 officers don loss dem life.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Ras Makonnen no waste time, him follow up de win wey he beat General Arimondi, make de Italians retreat to the fort for Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen come lay siege for de fort, plus for morning of 7 January 1896, the people wey dey defend de fort see big red tent among de besiegers, e mean say de emperor don show face.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, de emperor elite Shoan infantry capture the fort well, and dem brush off desperate Italian wey wan take back de well.<ref name="ReferenceE2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 19 January 1896, the fort commander, Major Galliano, wey him men dey suffer dehydration, raise white flag surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE3">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Major Galliano and him men fit march out, drop their weapons, den go free.<ref name="ReferenceE4">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik talk say he free the Italians 'to show my Christian faith,' say the wahala wey he get na with the Italian government led by Prime Minister Francesco Crispi wey dey try conquer him nation, no be de ordinary Italian soldiers wey dem force join the fight.<ref name="ReferenceE5">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik dey show plenty kindness to di defenders of Fort Mekele, e fit be like e dey do some mind game. E don talk to French and Russian diplomats, so e sabi say di war and Crispi no dey sweet for Italy. One of di main things wey Crispi dey use for his propaganda na di wahala wey dem dey talk say dem do di Italian POWs. For Menelik eye, allowing di Italian POWs make dem go free and no touch dem na di best way to clear dis propaganda and scatter support for Crispi. [[File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Emperor Menelik II at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]. ''[[:en:Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]'', 1898]] Crispi don send another 15,000 men go Horn of Africa and tell di main Italian commander, General Oreste Baratieri, make e finish di 'barbarians'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=209–210}}</ref> As Baratieri dey waste time, Menelik gats pull back on 17 February 1896 as him big army dey finish food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=210}}</ref> After Crispi send one insulting telegram dey call Baratieri coward, on 28 February 1896, di Italians decide say dem go fight Menelik.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=210–211}}</ref> On 1 March 1896, di two armies meet for Adwa. Di Ethiopians come out with victory. As victory land for Adwa and dem don scatter Italian army, Eritrea dey Menelik hand but him no gree occupy am. E be like say Menelik sabi pass wetin Europe people dey think. Him see say if e attack, Italians go bring all dem strength come disturb him country.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.L.|title=The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa|date=1988|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=0-7475-0113-0|edition=1|location=London}}</ref> So, instead, him wan fix the peace wey Italians don scatter with demma wahala seven years ago. Wen him sign de treaty, Menelik show say e dey sharp for politics as e promise each nation wetin dem go fit gain and make sure sey na him country go benefit, no be another. After all, dem finally agree for Treaty of Addis Ababa. Italy gree recognize Ethiopia independence, as dem talk for Article 3 of de treaty. France den Britain too sign am. plus if one nation try to reject am, de other two go no gree, sekof no country wan make any other country gain more power. == Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign == ===== Foreign policy ===== [[File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|right|thumb|After de Treaty wey[[:en:Treaty_of_Addis_Ababa|Treaty of Addis Ababa]] sign for 1896, Europeans sabi say Ethiopia dey. Menelik come finalize signing treaties with dem Europeans to mark di border of modern Ethiopia by 1904.]] After Menelik win for de First Italo-Ethiopian War, European people no waste time to change how dem dey relate with Ethiopian Empire. Delegation from UK and France—wey dem get obodo next to Ethiopia—come enter Ethiopian capital sharp sharp to negotiate their own treaties with dis new powerhouse. As dem quickly take advantage of Italy wahala, French influence burst up well well and France become one of the biggest European powers for Menelik court.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> For December 1896, French diplomatic team land for Addis Ababa, and on 20 March 1897, dem sign treaty wey dem describe as "véritable traité d'alliance."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> E for turn, as French wahala dey grow for Ethiopia, London people dey fear say French go fit take control of Blue Nile plus push British commot from Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> One night before Adwa battle, two Sudanese guys from Mahdiyya come meet Menelik for him camp wey dey Adwa. Dem wan talk how dem go join force fight Italians. For July 1896, one Ethiopian representative dey Abdallahi ibn Muhammad court for Omdurman. British dey fear say Menelik go support Mahdists revolt, so dem send diplomatic team go Ethiopia, den on 14 May 1897, dem sign Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty. Menelik tell British say he no go support Mahdists and he call dem enemy of him country, as he go gree give dem part of Haud area wey dey northeast, wey be traditional Somali grazing land. For December 1897, Ras Makonnen lead expedition go fight Mahdists to take de gold area wey dem dey call Benishangul-Gumuz.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Oliver|first1=Ronald|title=The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 6|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=663}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Milkias|first1=Paulos|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f71M3BC6TtIC&q=pg=PA118|title=The Battle of Adwa Reflections on Ethiopia's Historic Victory Against European Colonialism|date=2005|publisher=B&T Database Management|isbn=9780875864150|pages=121}}</ref> ===== Introducing new technology ===== g4d83lefwz6s2z5odza99ca897nzff7 67323 67322 2025-06-30T11:53:30Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Introducing new technology */ 67323 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> Di emperor self carry im army go attack Italian force wey Major Toselli lead for 7 December 1895 for Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Di Ethiopians jam 350 Eritrean irregulars for di left side, dem tumbled under di Ethiopian wahala, naim make Toselli send two companies of Italian infantry wey stop di Ethiopian push.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli dey happy for im supposed win, di main Ethiopian attack come drop for im right side, make Toselli order retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di emperor best general, Ras Makonnen, don take over di road wey go back to Eritrea, and launch heavy surprise attack wey scatter di Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di Battle of Amba Alagi end with 2,150 Italian men, 1,000 men and 20 officers don loss dem life.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Ras Makonnen no waste time, him follow up de win wey he beat General Arimondi, make de Italians retreat to the fort for Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen come lay siege for de fort, plus for morning of 7 January 1896, the people wey dey defend de fort see big red tent among de besiegers, e mean say de emperor don show face.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, de emperor elite Shoan infantry capture the fort well, and dem brush off desperate Italian wey wan take back de well.<ref name="ReferenceE2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 19 January 1896, the fort commander, Major Galliano, wey him men dey suffer dehydration, raise white flag surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE3">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Major Galliano and him men fit march out, drop their weapons, den go free.<ref name="ReferenceE4">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik talk say he free the Italians 'to show my Christian faith,' say the wahala wey he get na with the Italian government led by Prime Minister Francesco Crispi wey dey try conquer him nation, no be de ordinary Italian soldiers wey dem force join the fight.<ref name="ReferenceE5">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik dey show plenty kindness to di defenders of Fort Mekele, e fit be like e dey do some mind game. E don talk to French and Russian diplomats, so e sabi say di war and Crispi no dey sweet for Italy. One of di main things wey Crispi dey use for his propaganda na di wahala wey dem dey talk say dem do di Italian POWs. For Menelik eye, allowing di Italian POWs make dem go free and no touch dem na di best way to clear dis propaganda and scatter support for Crispi. [[File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Emperor Menelik II at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]. ''[[:en:Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]'', 1898]] Crispi don send another 15,000 men go Horn of Africa and tell di main Italian commander, General Oreste Baratieri, make e finish di 'barbarians'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=209–210}}</ref> As Baratieri dey waste time, Menelik gats pull back on 17 February 1896 as him big army dey finish food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=210}}</ref> After Crispi send one insulting telegram dey call Baratieri coward, on 28 February 1896, di Italians decide say dem go fight Menelik.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=210–211}}</ref> On 1 March 1896, di two armies meet for Adwa. Di Ethiopians come out with victory. As victory land for Adwa and dem don scatter Italian army, Eritrea dey Menelik hand but him no gree occupy am. E be like say Menelik sabi pass wetin Europe people dey think. Him see say if e attack, Italians go bring all dem strength come disturb him country.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.L.|title=The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa|date=1988|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=0-7475-0113-0|edition=1|location=London}}</ref> So, instead, him wan fix the peace wey Italians don scatter with demma wahala seven years ago. Wen him sign de treaty, Menelik show say e dey sharp for politics as e promise each nation wetin dem go fit gain and make sure sey na him country go benefit, no be another. After all, dem finally agree for Treaty of Addis Ababa. Italy gree recognize Ethiopia independence, as dem talk for Article 3 of de treaty. France den Britain too sign am. plus if one nation try to reject am, de other two go no gree, sekof no country wan make any other country gain more power. == Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign == ===== Foreign policy ===== [[File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|right|thumb|After de Treaty wey[[:en:Treaty_of_Addis_Ababa|Treaty of Addis Ababa]] sign for 1896, Europeans sabi say Ethiopia dey. Menelik come finalize signing treaties with dem Europeans to mark di border of modern Ethiopia by 1904.]] After Menelik win for de First Italo-Ethiopian War, European people no waste time to change how dem dey relate with Ethiopian Empire. Delegation from UK and France—wey dem get obodo next to Ethiopia—come enter Ethiopian capital sharp sharp to negotiate their own treaties with dis new powerhouse. As dem quickly take advantage of Italy wahala, French influence burst up well well and France become one of the biggest European powers for Menelik court.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> For December 1896, French diplomatic team land for Addis Ababa, and on 20 March 1897, dem sign treaty wey dem describe as "véritable traité d'alliance."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> E for turn, as French wahala dey grow for Ethiopia, London people dey fear say French go fit take control of Blue Nile plus push British commot from Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> One night before Adwa battle, two Sudanese guys from Mahdiyya come meet Menelik for him camp wey dey Adwa. Dem wan talk how dem go join force fight Italians. For July 1896, one Ethiopian representative dey Abdallahi ibn Muhammad court for Omdurman. British dey fear say Menelik go support Mahdists revolt, so dem send diplomatic team go Ethiopia, den on 14 May 1897, dem sign Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty. Menelik tell British say he no go support Mahdists and he call dem enemy of him country, as he go gree give dem part of Haud area wey dey northeast, wey be traditional Somali grazing land. For December 1897, Ras Makonnen lead expedition go fight Mahdists to take de gold area wey dem dey call Benishangul-Gumuz.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Oliver|first1=Ronald|title=The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 6|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=663}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Milkias|first1=Paulos|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f71M3BC6TtIC&q=pg=PA118|title=The Battle of Adwa Reflections on Ethiopia's Historic Victory Against European Colonialism|date=2005|publisher=B&T Database Management|isbn=9780875864150|pages=121}}</ref> ===== Introducing new technology ===== [[File:Dire_Dawa-Djibouti_train_leaving,_c._1912..jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dire_Dawa-Djibouti_train_leaving,_c._1912..jpg|left|thumb|For 1894, Menelik gree make dem build de [[:en:Ethio-Djibouti_Railways|Ethio-Djibouti Railways]]]] Menelik dey feel this modern vibes well well, and like Tewodros II wey come before am, e get strong mind to bring all de Western tech and sabi wey go help Ethiopia. After di big powers rush come establish relations after Ethiopia win Adwa, more and more white people start dey come Ethiopia for trade, farming, hunting, plus to look for mineral deals.<ref>See: Mikael Muehlbauer,“The Rhinoceros Horn Beakers of Menelik II of Ethiopia: Materiality, Ritual and Kingship,” ''West 86th'' 26 no. 1, 61-79.https://www.academia.edu/38449640/_The_Rhinoceros_Horn_Beakers_of_Menelik_II_of_Ethiopia_Materiality_Ritual_and_Kingship_</ref> Menelik be de one wey start di first modern bank for Ethiopia, di Bank of Abyssinia, him bring di first modern postal system come, sign agreement start work wey build di Addis Ababa –Djibouti railway with di French. E also carry electricity come Addis Ababa, plus telephone, telegraph, motor car, plus modern plumbing. E try but no fit bring coin make dem replace di Maria Theresa thaler. q8skk5xif4pbqgzjqgjlb81srz4zu7c 67325 67323 2025-06-30T11:56:24Z Seimawu Sugri Seidu 3104 /* Introducing new technology */ 67325 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Databox}} '''Menelik II''' ({{langx|gez|ዳግማዊ ምኒልክ}} {{Transliteration|sem|''dagmawi mənilək''}}{{#tag:ref|''Dagmawi'' means "the second".|group=nb}}; Horse wey dem dey call Aba Dagnew (Amharic: አባ ዳኘው abba daññäw); 17 August 1844 – 12 December 1913), dem don baptize am as Sahle Maryam (ሣህለ ማርያም sahlä maryam). E be king of Shewa from 1866 to 1889 and Emperor of Ethiopia {{#tag:ref|''Nəgusä Nägäst''.|group=nb}} from 1889 till e die for 1913.When e reach di peak of him power inside an outside, him don almost finish di whole territorial expansion and di make of modern empire-state by 1898.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19912">Zewde, Bahru.</ref> Menelik turn Ethiopian Empire go beta level: him put important things wey go modernize the country, with help from some big minister dem. Outside, Menilik carry Ethiopian soldiers fight Italian attackers for the First Italo-Ethiopian War; after he win big for the Battle of Adwa, obodo wey dey outside show respect for Ethiopia independence, dem come send diplomats go his palace and talk about wetin go be Ethiopia border with the kingdoms wey dey near am.<ref name="Zewde, Bahru 19913">Zewde, Bahru.</ref>Menelik carry him area go south and east, enter Oromo, Kaffa, Sidama, Wolayta and other kingdoms or people dem.<ref name="John Young 1998 192">{{Cite journal |last=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref>{{rp|2}} Later for him reign, Menelik set up di first cabinet of ministers to help run di empire, appointing people wey him trust and wey everybody sabi well to fill di first ministries.<ref>Tsehai Berhane-Selassie, Ethiopian Warriorhood: Defence, Land and Society, 1800-1941 (Eastern Africa Series)</ref> Dis ministers go dey around long after e die, dem go still chop demma posts even when Lij Iyasu dey reign (wey dem help come down) and go enter Empress Zewditu reign too. == Ein early life == Menelik be di pikin of di Shewan Amhara king, Negus Haile Melekot, and e fit be from di palace girl Ejigayehu Lemma Adyamo.<ref>Paul Henze, Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia, New York, Palgrave McMillan 2000, p. 132.</ref> E born for Angolalla and dem give am di name Sahle Maryam.<ref name="Menelik12">T. Etefa, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0TtmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT197 ''Integration and Peace in East Africa: A History of the Oromo Nation'']: Richard Greenfield, 1965. p. 97.</ref> E papa, wen e dey 18, e don put Ejigayehu belle, then e just waka pass;<ref>Chris Pouty, Empress Taitu and Menelik II, 1986, P. 2</ref> plus e no even sabi say Menelik don born.<ref>Harold Marcus, The Life and Time of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913 1995:19</ref> De boy sabi enjoy respect for di royal house and him gree do di traditional church school.<ref>Paul B. Henze, ''Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia'' (2000), Palgrave, New York, p. 132.</ref> For 1855, di Emperor of Ethiopia, Tewodros II, come invade di semi-independent kingdom of Shewa. Early for di battles wey follow, Haile Malakot die, and Menelik dey capture, carried go di emperor mountain palace, Amba Magdela. But Tewodros treat di young prince well, even gave am marriage to him daughter, Altash Tewodros, wey Menelik accept. When dem lock up Menelik, him uncle, Haile Mikael, become Shum{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to [[Governor]].|group=nb}} of Shewa by Emperor Tewodros wey give am title Meridazmach.{{#tag:ref|Roughly equivalent to Supreme General.|group=nb}} But Meridazmach Haile Mikael come dey fight Tewodros and dem replace am with Ato Bezabeh, wey no be royal.{{#tag:ref|Equivalent to Sir or Mr.|group=nb}} Ato Bezabeh come dey fight too, come declare himself Negus of Shewa. As Shewan royals wey dey prison for Magdela no dey mind as long as one of dem dey rule, dis common man don vex dem. Dem plan make Menelik run from Magdela; with help from Mohammed Ali and Queen Worqitu of Wollo, he run early morning on 1 July 1865, leave him wife, come back to Shewa. Tewodros no like am, come kill 29 Oromo hostages and beat 12 Amhara important people to death with bamboo sticks.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold G.|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913|publisher=Red Sea Press|year=1995|isbn=1-56902-010-8|location=Lawrenceville|pages=24ff}}</ref> == King of Shewa == [[File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik,_king_of_Shewa_1877.png|thumb|Dem carve picture wey show Menelik like king of Shewa, 1877]] Bezabeh try raise army wey go fight Menelik, e no work; plenty Shewans come gather for de flag of Negus Haile Melekot pikin and even Bezabeh own soldiers run go join de prince wey dey return. Menelik enter Ankober come talk say na him be Negus. As Menelik dey take back im family Shewan crown, e also wan claim di imperial throne, as direct pikin of Emperor Lebna Dengel. But for dis time, e no really try show dat claim; Author Harold Marcus talk say na because Menelik no get confident plus experience, plus say "e no fit destroy di man wey treat am like son."<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Marcus|first=Harold|title=The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844-1913|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1975|location=Oxford|page=57}}</ref> E no wan join the 1868 Expedition wey go Abyssinia, so e allow him rival Kassai to chop gifts of modern weapons and supplies from the British. When Tewodros die by suicide, Menelik arrange big celebration for him death even though e dey sad inside. Wen one British diplomat ask am why e do am, e reply say "to make the people happy ... as for me, I for just waka go bush to cry for ... [him] early death ... I don lose de person wey teach me, and na him I sabi love with true heart always."<ref name=":0" /> After, more wahala come – people for Wollo dey rebel, second wife Befana dey plot to push am out for ruler position, military yawa against Arsi Oromo for southeast – all this one dey hold Menelik back from facing Kassai direct until Kassai go bring Abuna from Egypt wey crown am Emperor Yohannes IV. Menelik be wise guy wey sabi how to build im power. E dey throw big three-day party for locals make dem like am, e no dey waste time to build pally pally with Muslims (like Muhammad Ali from Wollo), and e dey find joint wey go fit give am guns and political backup like the French and Italians. For 1876, one Italian group waka go Ethiopia led by Marchese Orazio Antinori wey talk say Menelik be "very friendly, and serious weapons fan, wey sabi how dem work well well". Another Italian talk say Menelik get de mind of small pikin; anything fit catch im attention ... E show say e get big brain plus sabi how to handle machine matter. Menelik dey talk sharp and quick. E no dey vex, Chiarini talk say, 'e dey listen calm, sabi, and with sense... E get mind wey dey see wetin go happen and e be true soldier, e love weapons pass anything.' Di visitors too confirm say people like am well well, and e dey always dey around dem.<ref name=":0" /> Menelik sabi politics plus military well well, e make moves wey later go help am as e dey expand e empire. == Succession == For 10 March 1889, Emperor Yohannes IV dem kill am for war wey dem dey call Mahdist State for Battle of Gallabat (Metemma).<ref name="EB1911">{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Menelek II.|page=128|volume=18}}</ref> As e dey breathe last, Yohannes talk say make im pikin, Dejazemach Mengesha Yohannes, be im heir. On 25 March, when Menelik hear say Yohannes don die, e just claim say im be emperor right away.<ref name="Mockler, p. 89">Mockler, p. 89</ref> Menelik talk say as Yohannes family dey claim say dem fit trace dem roots go King Solomon and Queen of Sheba through di women for dem line, him claim dey base on direct male lineage wey no break. Dis one make di Shewa family matter dey stand equal to di elder Gondar family for di dynasty. Menelik, and later him pikin Zewditu, go be di last Ethiopian kings wey fit claim say dem get direct male lineage from King Solomon and di Queen of Sheba (Lij Iyasu and Emperor Haile Selassie dey follow female line, Iyasu through him mama Shewarega Menelik, plus Haile Selassie through him papa mama, Tenagnework Sahle Selassie).{{citation needed|date=December 2022}} At de end, Menelik fit gather plenty of Ethiopian nobility to follow am. For 3 November 1889, dem crown am Emperor in front of big crowd wey get plenty dignitaries plus clergy, by Abuna Mattewos, wey be Bishop of Shewa, for Church of Mary on Mount Entoto.<ref>Mockler, p. 90</ref> De new Emperor Menelik II sharp-sharp waka go tour the north with strong force. Him collect de loyalty from local officials for Lasta, Yejju, Gojjam, Wollo, den Begemder. == Dem dey conquer di neighboring states plus dem don beat di Italians == ===== Conquests ===== {{main|Menelik II's conquests}} [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_1_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1879–89]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_2_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1889–96]] [[File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_campaign_map_3_3-es.svg|thumb|Menelik's campaigns 1897–1904]] Dem dey talk say Menelik na di man wey start modern Ethiopia.<ref name="A35">By Michael B. Lentakis [https://books.google.com/books?id=mCqtpPyZPZ0C&dq=%22Menelik+II+is+the+actual+founder+of+the+modern+Ethopian+Empire.%22&pg=PA8 Ethiopia: A View from Within]. Janus Publishing Company Lim (2005) p. 8 Google Books</ref><ref name="A37">Joel Augustus Rogers [https://books.google.com/books?id=d3wMAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+emperor+menelik+unifier+of+modern+Ethiopia%22 The Real Facts about Ethiopia]. J.A. Rogers, Pubs (1936) p. 11 Google Books</ref> Before Menelik chop colonial conquest,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gnamo|first1=Abbas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cfjYAgAAQBAJ&dq=menelik+conquest&pg=PA151|title=Conquest and Resistance in the Ethiopian Empire, 1880 - 1974 The Case of the Arsi Oromo|date=23 January 2014|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004265486|page=151}}</ref> Ethiopia and di Adal Sultanate don suffer plenty battles, di latest one na for 16th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Shaw|first1=Jeffrey|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KDlFDgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+adal+war&pg=PA270|title=War and Religion: An Encyclopedia of Faith and Conflict|date=27 March 2017|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781610695176|page=270}}</ref>During dat time, di way dem dey fight no change much. For 16th century, di Portuguese Bermudes mark say dem kill plenty people and do bad things to civilians plus soldiers (like torture, mass killing, plus big slavery) for de time of di Gadaa conquests wey Aba Gedas lead for places wey dey north of Genale river (Bali, Amhara, Gafat, Damot, Adal).<ref name="D3-2">Richard Pankhurst [https://books.google.com/books?id=zpYBD3bzW1wC&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA284 The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century – Google Books"], 1997. p. 284.</ref><ref name="D3-3">J. Bermudez [https://books.google.com/books?id=b0_uAgAAQBAJ&dq=neighbours+%22only+to+destroy+and+depopulate%22+%22slay+all+the+men%22+%22kill+the+old+women%22++%22keep+the+young%22+%22use+and+service%22+conquer&pg=PA229 The Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia in 1541–1546 as narrated by Castanhoso – Google Books"], 1543. p. 229.</ref> War for di area no be small matter, e involve sabi get cattle and slaves, conquer more land, control trade routes, follow rituals, or collect trophies wey go show say man be man.<ref name="D7">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22importance+of+warfare+as+a+form+of+intertribal+relations+in+Greater+Ethiopia%22+cattle+slaves+territory+%22trade+routes%22+%22ritual+requirements%22+%22virtually+all%22+%22hostile+contact%22+trophies+masculinity&pg=PA43 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 43 Google Books</ref><ref name="D11">W. G. Clarence-Smith [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Hfl5rpXM1sC&dq=%22Kaffa+the+state+was+actively+involved+in+the+harvesting+of+captives.+As+Kaffa+expanded+after+1800+skirmishes+with+other+Omotic+states+like+Kullo+and+Walamo%22&pg=PA107 The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century]. Psychology Press (1989) p. 107 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA13">Donald N. Levine [https://books.google.com/books?id=TtmFQejWaaYC&dq=%22Afar+made+slaves+of+Amhara%22+%22slaves+were+acquired+by+conquering+other+peoples%2C+by+taking+captives+in+war%2C+or+in+slave-raiding+expeditions%22&pg=PA56 Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a Multiethnic Society]. University of Chicago Press (2000) p. 56 Google Books</ref><ref name="D15">Harold G. Marcus [[iarchive:historyofethiopi00marc/page/55|<!-- quote="Slaves were often provided by Oromo and Sidamo rulers who raided their neighbors or who enslaved their own people for even minor crimes". --> A History of Ethiopia]]. University of California Press (1994) p. 55 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA12">Prof. Feqadu Lamessa [http://www.salem-news.com/articles/july282013/oromo-truths-fl.php History 101: Fiction and Facts on Oromos of Ethiopia]. Salem-News.com (2013)</ref> Menelik show Ras Mengesha Yohannes some kindness, e even make am prince for im own Tigray, but dem no treat am well as revolt upon revolt come rain.<ref name="EB1911" /> For 1898, Menelik handle wahala wey Ras Mengesha start (wey die for 1906).<ref name="EB1911" /> After this, Menelik shift hin focus to make sure hin power strong, and small, make everywhere for him country dey open for outside influences.<ref name="EB1911" /> League of Nations for 1920 talk say after Menelik forces invade where no be Abyssinia like Somalis, Harari, Oromo, Sidama, Shanqella, dem people wey dey there become slave plus dem dey pay serious tax under Gabbar system wey make plenty people waka go.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.everythingharar.com/images/pdf/publication/leagueofnations18205Ethiopia.pdf|title=Ethiopia: land of slavery & brutality|date=180|publisher=League of Nations|pages=2–5}}</ref> Menelik gather plenty northern areas through wetin dem dey call political agreement. Only Gojjam no join, dem dey give tribute to Shewan Kingdom after dem lose for the Battle of Embabo.<ref name="MenelikA5">Kevin Shillington [https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&dq=%22menilik+defeated+and+captured+the+negus+of+Gojjam%22&pg=PA506 Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set] (2013) p. 506 Google Books</ref> Most western plus central areas like Jimma, Welega Province plus Chebo just surrender to Menelik people without wahala.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hess|first1=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OmZ1AAAAMAAJ&q=Aba+Jifar+of+Jimma+submitted+to+Menelik|title=Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Ethiopian Studies, Session B, April 13-16, 1978, Chicago, USA|publisher=Office of Publications Services, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle|year=1979|page=715}}</ref> Local soldiers like Ras Gobana Dacche, Ras Mikael Ali, Habtegyorgis Dinegde, Balcha Aba Nefso join Menelik army wey dey push go south to collect more lands.<ref name="MenelikA6">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Mikael%27s+artillery%22+%22machine-gunners%22&pg=PA196 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 196 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA7">Chris Prouty [https://books.google.com/books?id=6fFyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22went+to+arsi+with+Ras+Gobena+on+one+of+his+many+attempts+to+conquer%22 Empress Taytu and Menilek II: Ethiopia, 1883–1910]. Ravens Educational & Development Services (1986) p. 45 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA8">Paul B. Henze [https://books.google.com/books?id=gzwoedwOkQMC&dq=%22Menelik+had+guaranteed+Jimma+autonomy+in+1882%22&pg=PA208 Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia] (2000) p. 208 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA9">Gebre-Igziabiher Elyas, Reidulf Knut Molvaer [https://books.google.com/books?id=d2jjAAAAMAAJ&q=%22If+Habte-Girogis+is+with+us+and+Teferi+is+very+young%22 Prowess, Piety and Politics: The Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909–1930)] (1994) p. 370 Google Books</ref><ref name="MenelikA10">John Markakis [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=yckMyLVh3oYC&pg=PA109&dq=%22minister+of+war,+fitawrari+habte+giorgis%22+%22the+old+warlord%27s+army+of+some+16,000+men%22+%22vast+estates,+stores%22+weapons+%22and+other+sources+of+wealth%22&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj2wp28ma_MAhVI6RQKHavvBewQ6AEIGzAA#v=onepage&q=%22minister%20of%20war%2C%20fitawrari%20habte%20giorgis%22%20%22the%20old%20warlord's%20army%20of%20some%2016%2C000%20men%22%20%22vast%20estates%2C%20stores%22%20weapons%20%22and%20other%20sources%20of%20wealth%22&f=false Ethiopia: The Last Two Frontiers] (2011) p. 109 Google Books</ref><ref name="D16">Richard Alan Caulk, Bahru Zewde [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZJLCZT7MW08C&dq=%22Abba+Jifar+II+of+Jimma%22+%22Ras+Mikael%22+%22Fitawrari+Gabayahu%22+%22Hayla-Maryam+Wale%22+Makonnen+%22ras+walda-giyorgis%22&pg=PA415 "Between the Jaws of Hyenas": A Diplomatic History of Ethiopia, 1876–1896]. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, 2002 p. 415 Google Books</ref> For around 1870s, Menelik waka from Shewa to join all di lands plus people of South, East, and West make dem one empire.<ref name="John Young 1998 1922">{{cite journal |author=John Young |year=1998 |title=Regionalism and Democracy in Ethiopia |journal=Third World Quarterly |volume=19 |issue=2 |page=192 |doi=10.1080/01436599814415 |jstor=3993156}}</ref> Dis period wey dem call 'Agar Maqnat' be like say dem dey cultivate land.<ref>Tibebu, ''The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974'', p.40</ref> Di people wey Menelik carry join am na di southerners – Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Wolayta plus plenty other groups.{{rp|2}} Historian Raymond Jonas talk say di way Menelik take conquer Emirate of Harar no easy, e be 'brutal'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Jonas|first1=Raymond|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9p_8XB-OeMMC&dq=the+shoan+occupation+of+harar+was+brutal+and+menelik&pg=PA76|title=The Battle of Adwa African Victory in the Age of Empire|date=15 November 2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674062795|page=76}}</ref> For places dem join peace like Jimma, Leka, plus Wolega, dem still dey follow dia own way no wahala; but for areas wey dem join after war, di new rulers no go touch di people religion plus dem treat dem lawfully den justly.<ref name="D1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22not+violating+their+customers+and+religious+beliefs+and+treating+them+lawfully+and+justly.%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896-1898- Google Books"]: 2000. p. 69.</ref><ref name="D1-1">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=W3hyAAAAMAAJ&q=%22former+order+has+been+preserved%22+%22do+not+interfere+in+their+self-government%22 Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898 Google Books"], 2000. p. 68.</ref><ref name="D17">Aleksandr Ksaver'evich Bulatovich [http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171216204959/http://www.samizdat.com/entotto.html|date=16 December 2017}} samizdat 1993</ref> But for di places wey dem take soldier power, Menelik army do plenty bad things to civilians and fighters, like torture, kill people anyhow, den enslave plenty pipo.<ref name="ReferenceA">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="mekuria">Mekuria Bulcha, Genocidal violence in the making of nation and state in Ethiopia, African Sociological Review</ref> Big wahala happen wey dem do de Dizi people plus Kaficho Kingdom people.<ref name="ReferenceB">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague</ref><ref>Haberland, "Amharic Manuscript", pp. 241ff</ref> E be say some people fit talk say de number wey die cause de war, hunger plus those bad things don pass millions.<ref name="ReferenceA2">Mohammed Hassen, Conquest, Tyranny, and Ethnocide against the Oromo: A Historical Assessment of Human Rights Conditions in Ethiopia, c. 1880s–2002, Northeast African Studies Volume 9, Number 3, 2002 (New Series)</ref><ref name="ReferenceY">Alemayehu Kumsa, Power and Powerlessness in Contemporary Ethiopia, Charles University in Prague p. 1122</ref><ref name="ReferenceZ">Eshete Gemeda, [https://books.google.com/books?id=aUcbtM9k_fgC&dq=million+of+Oromo&pg=PA186 African Egalitarian Values and Indigenous Genres: A Comparative Approach to the Functional and Contextual Studies of Oromo National Literature in a Contemporary Perspective], p. 186</ref><ref>A. K. Bulatovich Ethiopia Through Russian Eyes: Country in Transition, 1896–1898, translated by Richard Seltzer, 2000 p. 68</ref> Dem try different ways wey Menelik plus Belgian king Leopold II go fit join hand more than once.<ref>Jesman, 1959: [https://academic.oup.com/afraf/article-abstract/58/231/145/50676?redirectedFrom=PDF Leopold II and Ethiopia]</ref> ===== Foundation of Addis Ababa ===== [[File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Emperor_Menelik_II's_Humble_Palace,_Addis_Abeba,_Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|De [[:en:Menelik_Palace|Menelik Palace]] for [[:en:Addis_Ababa|Addis Ababa]]]] For long time, Ethiopia no get proper capital; instead, dem dey move royal camp around. At one point, Menelik camp dey for Mount Entoto, but for 1886, while Menelik dey fight for Harar, Empress Taytu Betul camp for hot spring wey dey south of Mount Entoto. She decide say she go build house there and from 1887, na im be her permanent base wey she name Addis Ababa (new flower). Menelik generals all get land nearby to build demma own houses, plus for 1889, work start for new royal palace.<ref>Kevin Shillington, Encyclopedia of African History, Routledge 2013 pp. 13–14</ref> De city grow fast, and by 1910, the place get around 70,000 people wey dey live there steady, plus 50,000 more wey dey come den go.<ref>Yohannes K. Makonnen, Ethiopia, The Land, Its People, History and Culture, New Africa Press 2013 p. 264</ref> Na only for 1917, after Menelik die, railway from Djibouti fit reach de city.<ref>Solomon Addis Getahun & Wudu Tafete Kassu, Culture and a Customs of Ethiopia, ABC-CLIO 2014 p. 26</ref> ===== De Great Famine (1888–1892) ===== Babylon wey Menelik dey rule, di wahala wey happen from 1888 to 1892 na di worst famine for di area. E don kill about one-third of people wey dey there, wey dem sabi say dey be roughly 12 million.<ref name="E1">Peter Gill [https://books.google.com.et/books?id=lzZpOyYE1DYC&pg=PT41&dq=%22The+Great+Famine+that+resulted+may+have+killed+a+third+of+Ethiopia%27s+population,+then+put+at+12+million.%22+worst&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi02bK1mOTNAhXJ1xQKHdWVDPwQ6AEIHDAA#v=onepage&q=%22The%20Great%20Famine%20that%20resulted%20may%20have%20killed%20a%20third%20of%20Ethiopia's%20population%2C%20then%20put%20at%2012%20million.%22%20worst&f=false ''Famine and Foreigners: Ethiopia Since Live Aid''] OUP Oxford, 2010 Google Books</ref> Dis wahala come from rinderpest, wey be bad virus wey dey affect cow, e don finish plenty of di national cattle, over 90% don die. Di local cows no sabi dis sickness before, so dem no fit fight am off.<ref name="E2">Paul Dorosh, Shahidur Rashid [https://books.google.com/books?id=yNHaXJyldXkC&dq=rinderpest+%2290+percent+of+the+cattle+of+Ethiopia+perished%22+%22no+prior+exposure%22+%22unexposed+native+cattle+populations%22+%22unable+to+fight%22+%22not+more+than+7+or+8+percent%22&pg=PA257 ''Food and Agriculture in Ethiopia: Progress and Policy Challenges''] University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012 p. 257 Google Books</ref> ===== Wuchale Treaty ===== {{main|Treaty of Wuchale}} [[File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abyssinia1891map-excerpt1.jpg|thumb|Abyssinia (Ethiopia) for one 1891 map, wey show dem national borders before de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]]] For 2 May 1889, as Menelik dey fight for throne against Ras Mengesha Yohannes, wey be natural pikin of Emperor Yohannes IV, e sign treaty with Italy for Wuchale (dem dey call am Uccialli for Italian) for Wollo province. Dem agree say Ethiopia plus Italy go fit settle how boundary go be between Eritrea plus Ethiopia. Like, dem both agree say Arafali, Halai, Segeneiti, plus Asmara dey insyde Italian border. Plus, Italians promise say dem no go disturb Ethiopian traders plus go allow Ethiopian goods to pass safely, especially military weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Treaty of Wuchale|url=http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601015943/http://www.snem.tk/documents/wuchale.pdf|archive-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> De treaty also make sure say Ethiopian government go own the Monastery of Debre Bizen but go no use am for military matter. But, e get two versions of de treaty, one dey Italian plus another dey Amharic. Menelik no sabi say de Italian version dey give Italy more power pass wetin dem agree. De Italians think say dem don sharp Menelik trick into say make e pledge loyalty to Italy. But as Menelik find out say dem don change am, e reject de treaty. Dem try give am bribe with two million rounds of ammunition but e no gree. Den dem go meet Ras Mengesha from Tigray try start kwikwi war, but Ras Mengesha know say Ethiopia independence dey risk, so e no wan be Italian puppet. So, de Italians prepare to attack Ethiopia with army led by Oreste Baratieri. Later, dem declare war den start to invade Ethiopia. ===== Italo-Ethiopian War ===== {{main|First Italo-Ethiopian War}}Menelik no gree with Article 17 of di treaty, so e cause di Battle of Adwa. Before di Italians fit start dem invasion, some Eritreans don dey rebel try to push dem Italians comot from Eritrea den stop dem from entering Ethiopia.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haggai|first1=Erlich|title=Ras Alula and the scramble for Africa – a political biography: Ethiopia and Eritrea 1875–1897|date=1997|publisher=African World Press}}</ref> Di rebellion no work wey well. But some Eritreans still manage sneak go Ethiopian camp and dey join fight di Italians for Adwa. For 17 September 1895, Menelik don order all the Ethiopian nobles make dem bring dem banners come out plus gather dem feudal boys, talk say: "One enemy don land from sea. E don break through our borders, wan destroy our land and our faith. I fit allow am take my things and I dey negotiate with am long time make e no shed blood. But the enemy no wan hear. E dey undermine our land and our people like mole. Enough! With God help, I go defend my forefathers inheritance plus push de invader back with force. Make every man wey get strength follow me. And if you no get strength, just pray for us."<ref name="Arrogant Armies">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> But Menelik opponent, General Oreste Baratieri, no take de size of de Ethiopian force serious, e predict say Menelik fit only gather 30,000 men.<ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> [[File:Musée_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mus%C3%A9e_national_d'Ethiopie-Canon_de_la_bataille_d'Adwa_(1).jpg|thumb| cannon wey Menelik don use at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]] on display at de [[:en:National_Museum_of_Ethiopia|National Museum of Ethiopia]]]] Even though dem Italian people talk say Ethiopia be barbaric place wey the men no fit match white soldiers, na lie be dat! Ethiopians dey well armed, dem get plenty modern rifles and Hotchkiss guns plus ammunition wey pass wetin Italian get.<ref name="ReferenceC2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=205}}</ref> Menelik make sure say him infantry den artillerymen sabi how to use dem well, so dem get big advantage sekof Hotchkiss artillery fit fire faster pass Italian one. For 1887, one British big man, Gerald Portal, dey talk say after e see the Ethiopian warriors dey show for front am, e notice say di Ethiopians get plenty courage, dem no fear die, and dem get strong national pride wey make dem look down on any body wey no be born like dem, wey dem dey call Abyssinian [Ethiopian].<ref name="ReferenceC2" /> Di emperor self carry im army go attack Italian force wey Major Toselli lead for 7 December 1895 for Boota Hill.<ref name="Arrogant Armies2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=206}}</ref> Di Ethiopians jam 350 Eritrean irregulars for di left side, dem tumbled under di Ethiopian wahala, naim make Toselli send two companies of Italian infantry wey stop di Ethiopian push.<ref name="ReferenceD">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=207}}</ref> Just as Toselli dey happy for im supposed win, di main Ethiopian attack come drop for im right side, make Toselli order retreat.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di emperor best general, Ras Makonnen, don take over di road wey go back to Eritrea, and launch heavy surprise attack wey scatter di Italians.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Di Battle of Amba Alagi end with 2,150 Italian men, 1,000 men and 20 officers don loss dem life.<ref name="ReferenceD" /> Ras Makonnen no waste time, him follow up de win wey he beat General Arimondi, make de Italians retreat to the fort for Mekele.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=208}}</ref> Ras Makonnen come lay siege for de fort, plus for morning of 7 January 1896, the people wey dey defend de fort see big red tent among de besiegers, e mean say de emperor don show face.<ref name="ReferenceE">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 8 January 1896, de emperor elite Shoan infantry capture the fort well, and dem brush off desperate Italian wey wan take back de well.<ref name="ReferenceE2">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> On 19 January 1896, the fort commander, Major Galliano, wey him men dey suffer dehydration, raise white flag surrender.<ref name="ReferenceE3">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Major Galliano and him men fit march out, drop their weapons, den go free.<ref name="ReferenceE4">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik talk say he free the Italians 'to show my Christian faith,' say the wahala wey he get na with the Italian government led by Prime Minister Francesco Crispi wey dey try conquer him nation, no be de ordinary Italian soldiers wey dem force join the fight.<ref name="ReferenceE5">{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=209}}</ref> Menelik dey show plenty kindness to di defenders of Fort Mekele, e fit be like e dey do some mind game. E don talk to French and Russian diplomats, so e sabi say di war and Crispi no dey sweet for Italy. One of di main things wey Crispi dey use for his propaganda na di wahala wey dem dey talk say dem do di Italian POWs. For Menelik eye, allowing di Italian POWs make dem go free and no touch dem na di best way to clear dis propaganda and scatter support for Crispi. [[File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Menelik_-_Adoua-2_(cropped).jpg|thumb|Emperor Menelik II at de [[:en:Battle_of_Adwa|Battle of Adwa]]. ''[[:en:Le_Petit_Journal_(newspaper)|Le Petit Journal]]'', 1898]] Crispi don send another 15,000 men go Horn of Africa and tell di main Italian commander, General Oreste Baratieri, make e finish di 'barbarians'.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=209–210}}</ref> As Baratieri dey waste time, Menelik gats pull back on 17 February 1896 as him big army dey finish food.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|page=210}}</ref> After Crispi send one insulting telegram dey call Baratieri coward, on 28 February 1896, di Italians decide say dem go fight Menelik.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Perry|first1=James|title=Arrogant Armies|date=2005|publisher=Castle Books|pages=210–211}}</ref> On 1 March 1896, di two armies meet for Adwa. Di Ethiopians come out with victory. As victory land for Adwa and dem don scatter Italian army, Eritrea dey Menelik hand but him no gree occupy am. E be like say Menelik sabi pass wetin Europe people dey think. Him see say if e attack, Italians go bring all dem strength come disturb him country.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lewis|first1=D.L.|title=The Race to Fashoda: European Colonialism and African Resistance in the Scramble for Africa|date=1988|publisher=Bloomsbury|isbn=0-7475-0113-0|edition=1|location=London}}</ref> So, instead, him wan fix the peace wey Italians don scatter with demma wahala seven years ago. Wen him sign de treaty, Menelik show say e dey sharp for politics as e promise each nation wetin dem go fit gain and make sure sey na him country go benefit, no be another. After all, dem finally agree for Treaty of Addis Ababa. Italy gree recognize Ethiopia independence, as dem talk for Article 3 of de treaty. France den Britain too sign am. plus if one nation try to reject am, de other two go no gree, sekof no country wan make any other country gain more power. == Developments for de time wey Menelik's de reign == ===== Foreign policy ===== [[File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Africa_1909,_Edward_Hertslet_(Map_of_Africa_by_treaty,_3rd_edition).jpg|right|thumb|After de Treaty wey[[:en:Treaty_of_Addis_Ababa|Treaty of Addis Ababa]] sign for 1896, Europeans sabi say Ethiopia dey. Menelik come finalize signing treaties with dem Europeans to mark di border of modern Ethiopia by 1904.]] After Menelik win for de First Italo-Ethiopian War, European people no waste time to change how dem dey relate with Ethiopian Empire. Delegation from UK and France—wey dem get obodo next to Ethiopia—come enter Ethiopian capital sharp sharp to negotiate their own treaties with dis new powerhouse. As dem quickly take advantage of Italy wahala, French influence burst up well well and France become one of the biggest European powers for Menelik court.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> For December 1896, French diplomatic team land for Addis Ababa, and on 20 March 1897, dem sign treaty wey dem describe as "véritable traité d'alliance."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> E for turn, as French wahala dey grow for Ethiopia, London people dey fear say French go fit take control of Blue Nile plus push British commot from Egypt.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marcus |first1=Harold G. |year=1963 |title=A Background to Direct British Diplomatic Involvement in Ethiopia, 1894–1896 |journal=Journal of Ethiopian Studies |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=121–132 |jstor=41965700}}</ref> One night before Adwa battle, two Sudanese guys from Mahdiyya come meet Menelik for him camp wey dey Adwa. Dem wan talk how dem go join force fight Italians. For July 1896, one Ethiopian representative dey Abdallahi ibn Muhammad court for Omdurman. British dey fear say Menelik go support Mahdists revolt, so dem send diplomatic team go Ethiopia, den on 14 May 1897, dem sign Anglo-Ethiopian Treaty. Menelik tell British say he no go support Mahdists and he call dem enemy of him country, as he go gree give dem part of Haud area wey dey northeast, wey be traditional Somali grazing land. For December 1897, Ras Makonnen lead expedition go fight Mahdists to take de gold area wey dem dey call Benishangul-Gumuz.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Oliver|first1=Ronald|title=The Cambridge History of Africa: Volume 6|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=663}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Milkias|first1=Paulos|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f71M3BC6TtIC&q=pg=PA118|title=The Battle of Adwa Reflections on Ethiopia's Historic Victory Against European Colonialism|date=2005|publisher=B&T Database Management|isbn=9780875864150|pages=121}}</ref> ===== Introducing new technology ===== [[File:Dire_Dawa-Djibouti_train_leaving,_c._1912..jpg|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dire_Dawa-Djibouti_train_leaving,_c._1912..jpg|left|thumb|For 1894, Menelik gree make dem build de [[:en:Ethio-Djibouti_Railways|Ethio-Djibouti Railways]]]] Menelik dey feel this modern vibes well well, and like Tewodros II wey come before am, e get strong mind to bring all de Western tech and sabi wey go help Ethiopia. After di big powers rush come establish relations after Ethiopia win Adwa, more and more white people start dey come Ethiopia for trade, farming, hunting, plus to look for mineral deals.<ref>See: Mikael Muehlbauer,“The Rhinoceros Horn Beakers of Menelik II of Ethiopia: Materiality, Ritual and Kingship,” ''West 86th'' 26 no. 1, 61-79.https://www.academia.edu/38449640/_The_Rhinoceros_Horn_Beakers_of_Menelik_II_of_Ethiopia_Materiality_Ritual_and_Kingship_</ref> Menelik be de one wey start di first modern bank for Ethiopia, di Bank of Abyssinia, him bring di first modern postal system come, sign agreement start work wey build di Addis Ababa –Djibouti railway with di French. E also carry electricity come Addis Ababa, plus telephone, telegraph, motor car, plus modern plumbing. E try but no fit bring coin make dem replace di Maria Theresa thaler. For 1894, Menelik gree give pass to build railway wey go carry people from Djibouti port go im capital. But in 1902, France come talk say dem wan control de railway wey dey for Ethiopian land, so e come stop dem for four years from extending the railway past Dire Dawa. But for 1906, when France, UK, plus Italy gree wey dem go join body for de matter, Menelik come show say him still dey fully get control over everything for im empire. One gist dey go say, Menelik hear say dem dey use electric chairs to carry out punishment for criminals during 1890s. E order 3 for him kingdom. When di chairs land, Menelik come find out say e no go fit work, since Ethiopia no get electric power system yet. Instead make e waste him money, Menelik come use one chair as him throne, send di other one to him second (Lique Mekwas) or Abate Ba-Yalew.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Van Paassen|first1=Pierre|title=Days of Our Years|date=1939|publisher=London: Heinemann|page=315|quote=We did stumble on another curiosity: the local Dedjaz, or chief of the village, at the foot of the St Abo mountain was the proud possessor of an electric chair. This deadly instrument, quite harmless in that rural Ethiopian environment, was one of the famous trio imported by Emperor Menelik from America. Another specimen stands in the old Guebi [palace] in Addis Ababa, and a third lies somewhere in the desert near Awash, where it is said to be venerated with superstitious awe by the Danakil tribesmen. Menelik ordered three metal chairs from America when he heard that his method of executing criminals (he had them ripped apart by letting two saplings to which their legs were attached suddenly spring back in opposite directions) was decried as un-Christian by his missionary friends. It was found impossible to make the chairs do the work for which they were intended without an electric current, and as this was not available in Menelik’s days, the great Negus [Emperor] used one of them as a throne, the second he gave away, and the third never reached him, for the vehicle in which it was conveyed across the Danakil desert was wrecked two hundred miles from home.}}</ref> But recent research don show say this story no really hold water and e fit be say na Canadian journalist form am during di 1930s.<ref>{{cite web|date=9 September 2010|title=The Emperor's electric chair|url=http://mikedashhistory.com/2010/09/09/the-emperors-electric-chair/|access-date=28 March 2018|website=mikedashhistory.com}}</ref> matvbo1yawtkul2j2gb1ohxssesbro1 0 18156 67302 2025-06-30T09:39:29Z Domatieha 3228 Dis bi ma work 67302 wikitext text/x-wiki Policy wahala for forced repatriation for Africa no be small matter. E dey talk about whether people fit go back voluntarily or dem go force dem, how we go protect human rights when dem dey come back, and wetin development fit do to make sure say dem fit return wey go last. Even though international law and African laws like OAU Refugee Convention and Kampala Convention dey talk say no make we force people, people still dey worry if safe return dey possible and the ethics of making people go back to danger. Key wahala wey dey for the debate be: Voluntary vs. Forced Repatriation: We need make sure say people no go back against dem will to place wey no go protect their basic rights or where the same problem wey make dem run still dey. Dis one dey important for refugees and IDPs. Human Rights and Protection: People dey shout say we need respect human rights and international law well, so that those wey go home fit get their citizenship and right to stay if dem no dey get their rights for their own country. Non-refoulement principle dey very important, no allow forced return. Challenges to Implementation: Many African governments no get enough manpower, money, or political will to carry out migration policies well, including the repatriation ones. Dis one dey make am hard to create better conditions for safe and sustainable return. Role of Development: People dey see say if we shift to development approach, e go help reduce the wahala wey dey for host countries and also help improve life for refugees wey dey there, make dem fit plan to return voluntarily one day. Xenophobia and Discrimination: For some places, xenophobia and discrimination against refugees fit make dem force people go back.<ref><nowiki>https://www.google.com/search?q=Policy+Debates+on+Forced+Repatriation+in+Africa&oq=Policy+Debates+on+Forced+Repatriation+in+Africa&gs_lcrp=EgZjaHJvbWUyBggAEEUYOTIHCAEQIRigATIHCAIQIRigATIHCAMQIRiPAjIHCAQQIRiPAjIGCAUQRRg80gEIMjg5N2owajeoAg6wAgHxBQQ62PPQV1YS&client=ms-android-transsion-tecno-rev1&sourceid=chrome-mobile&ie=UTF-8</nowiki></ref> rxwivyvhk1klz34zmix3d7xg8347rkb 0 18157 67304 2025-06-30T09:52:02Z Ebbsonline 2563 awrite about yam (Vegetable) 67304 wikitext text/x-wiki '''Yam''' be the common name wey people dey call some plants inside the Dioscorea family (wey be Dioscoreaceae). Some of the plants for that group get edible tubers, but others fit be poisonous. Yams be perennial herb vines wey originally come from Africa, Asia, and the Americas. People dey grow dem mainly for the starchy tubers wey dem dey chop. These tubers too dey called "yams", and dem get plenty different types because of the many varieties and related species. == Ein Description == Yam be monocot plant wey relate to lilies den grasses. E be strong herbaceous vine wey dey grow every year from one tuber.<ref>[https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/19293 "''Dioscorea alata'' (white yam)"]. [[:en:Centre_for_Agriculture_and_Bioscience_International|Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]. 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> 2pfmh8rwh3mi9xp4kj4wwagmp0qy6jj 67305 67304 2025-06-30T09:54:58Z Ebbsonline 2563 67305 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the large tuberous starchy root eaten as a staple food|the North American yam|Sweet potato|the New Zealand yam|Oxalis tuberosa{{!}}''Oxalis tuberosa''|elephant foot yam|Amorphophallus paeoniifolius{{!}}''Amorphophallus paeoniifolius''}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}} [[File:Yams species called Parkistan. The size is for eating but smaller sizes can be cultivated.jpg|thumb|Unknown yam variety, most likely of the ''alata'' species.]] '''Yam''' be the common name wey people dey call some plants inside the Dioscorea family (wey be Dioscoreaceae). Some of the plants for that group get edible tubers, but others fit be poisonous. Yams be perennial herb vines wey originally come from Africa, Asia, and the Americas. People dey grow dem mainly for the starchy tubers wey dem dey chop. These tubers too dey called "yams", and dem get plenty different types because of the many varieties and related species. == Ein Description == Yam be monocot plant wey relate to lilies den grasses. E be strong herbaceous vine wey dey grow every year from one tuber.<ref>[https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/19293 "''Dioscorea alata'' (white yam)"]. [[:en:Centre_for_Agriculture_and_Bioscience_International|Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]. 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> == References == hm3jz7soarch8urdlo0rqazlqpvru47 67306 67305 2025-06-30T10:00:54Z Ebbsonline 2563 67306 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the large tuberous starchy root eaten as a staple food|the North American yam|Sweet potato|the New Zealand yam|Oxalis tuberosa{{!}}''Oxalis tuberosa''|elephant foot yam|Amorphophallus paeoniifolius{{!}}''Amorphophallus paeoniifolius''}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}} [[File:Yams species called Parkistan. The size is for eating but smaller sizes can be cultivated.jpg|thumb|Unknown yam variety, most likely of the ''alata'' species.]] [[File:YamsatBrixtonMarket.jpg|thumb|White yams at a retail market in [[Brixton]], England, 2004]] '''Yam''' be the common name wey people dey call some plants inside the Dioscorea family (wey be Dioscoreaceae). Some of the plants for that group get edible tubers, but others fit be poisonous. Yams be perennial herb vines wey originally come from Africa, Asia, and the Americas. People dey grow dem mainly for the starchy tubers wey dem dey chop. These tubers too dey called "yams", and dem get plenty different types because of the many varieties and related species. == Ein Description == Yam be monocot plant wey relate to lilies den grasses. E be strong herbaceous vine wey dey grow every year from one tuber.<ref name=":0">[https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/19293 "''Dioscorea alata'' (white yam)"]. [[:en:Centre_for_Agriculture_and_Bioscience_International|Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]. 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> Dem know about 870 different types of yam <ref name=":0" />. Some of dem people dey grow well well because of the edible tuber, but others like D. communis be poisonous. Yam plants fit grow reach 15 meters (50 feet) long and dem body fit high between 7 to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches). <ref name=":0" /> == Ein Etymology == == References == <references /> [[Category:Africa]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Festivals insyd Ghana]] k219lyiu6ggry0xxx2gf722ooadfrjq 67307 67306 2025-06-30T10:03:57Z Ebbsonline 2563 /* Ein Etymology */ 67307 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the large tuberous starchy root eaten as a staple food|the North American yam|Sweet potato|the New Zealand yam|Oxalis tuberosa{{!}}''Oxalis tuberosa''|elephant foot yam|Amorphophallus paeoniifolius{{!}}''Amorphophallus paeoniifolius''}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}} [[File:Yams species called Parkistan. The size is for eating but smaller sizes can be cultivated.jpg|thumb|Unknown yam variety, most likely of the ''alata'' species.]] [[File:YamsatBrixtonMarket.jpg|thumb|White yams at a retail market in [[Brixton]], England, 2004]] '''Yam''' be the common name wey people dey call some plants inside the Dioscorea family (wey be Dioscoreaceae). Some of the plants for that group get edible tubers, but others fit be poisonous. Yams be perennial herb vines wey originally come from Africa, Asia, and the Americas. People dey grow dem mainly for the starchy tubers wey dem dey chop. These tubers too dey called "yams", and dem get plenty different types because of the many varieties and related species. == Ein Description == Yam be monocot plant wey relate to lilies den grasses. E be strong herbaceous vine wey dey grow every year from one tuber.<ref name=":0">[https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/19293 "''Dioscorea alata'' (white yam)"]. [[:en:Centre_for_Agriculture_and_Bioscience_International|Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]. 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> Dem know about 870 different types of yam <ref name=":0" />. Some of dem people dey grow well well because of the edible tuber, but others like D. communis be poisonous. Yam plants fit grow reach 15 meters (50 feet) long and dem body fit high between 7 to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches). <ref name=":0" /> == Ein Etymology == The name ''"yam"'' come from the Portuguese word "inhame" or Canarian Spanish "ñame", wey both come from Fula language, one of the [[West Africa|West African]] [[Languages wey dey Ghana|languages]] wey people dey use during trading time.<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/yam "Yam"]. ''[[:en:Online_Etymology_Dictionary|Online Etymology Dictionary]]''. [[:en:Douglas_Harper|Douglas Harper]]. 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Africa]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Festivals insyd Ghana]] slop7tad1n28ea5bp19pue8vs1amxwc 67309 67307 2025-06-30T10:12:33Z Ebbsonline 2563 /* Ein Uses */ 67309 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the large tuberous starchy root eaten as a staple food|the North American yam|Sweet potato|the New Zealand yam|Oxalis tuberosa{{!}}''Oxalis tuberosa''|elephant foot yam|Amorphophallus paeoniifolius{{!}}''Amorphophallus paeoniifolius''}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}} [[File:Yams species called Parkistan. The size is for eating but smaller sizes can be cultivated.jpg|thumb|Unknown yam variety, most likely of the ''alata'' species.]] [[File:YamsatBrixtonMarket.jpg|thumb|White yams at a retail market in [[Brixton]], England, 2004]] '''Yam''' be the common name wey people dey call some plants inside the Dioscorea family (wey be Dioscoreaceae). Some of the plants for that group get edible tubers, but others fit be poisonous. Yams be perennial herb vines wey originally come from Africa, Asia, and the Americas. People dey grow dem mainly for the starchy tubers wey dem dey chop. These tubers too dey called "yams", and dem get plenty different types because of the many varieties and related species. == Ein Description == Yam be monocot plant wey relate to lilies den grasses. E be strong herbaceous vine wey dey grow every year from one tuber.<ref name=":0">[https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/19293 "''Dioscorea alata'' (white yam)"]. [[:en:Centre_for_Agriculture_and_Bioscience_International|Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]. 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> Dem know about 870 different types of yam <ref name=":0" />. Some of dem people dey grow well well because of the edible tuber, but others like D. communis be poisonous. Yam plants fit grow reach 15 meters (50 feet) long and dem body fit high between 7 to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches). <ref name=":0" /> == Ein Etymology == The name ''"yam"'' come from the Portuguese word "inhame" or Canarian Spanish "ñame", wey both come from Fula language, one of the [[West Africa|West African]] [[Languages wey dey Ghana|languages]] wey people dey use during trading time.<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/yam "Yam"]. ''[[:en:Online_Etymology_Dictionary|Online Etymology Dictionary]]''. [[:en:Douglas_Harper|Douglas Harper]]. 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> == Ein Uses == === Africa === You for chop African yams only after you cook am, because dem get some natural things insyd wey fit make person sick if dem chop am raw. For West den Central Africa, the common ways people dey take cook yam be say dem go boil am, fry am, or roast am.<ref>Nweke, Felix; Aidoo, Robert; Okoye, Benjamin (July 2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20181122052052/https://agriknowledge.org/downloads/6969z081q "Yam Consumption Patterns in West Africa"]. Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Archived from the original on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Africa]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Festivals insyd Ghana]] k5znvz13fmrkkizll0l5bwplwmyn8ep 67315 67309 2025-06-30T10:30:44Z Ebbsonline 2563 /* Africa */ 67315 wikitext text/x-wiki {{About|the large tuberous starchy root eaten as a staple food|the North American yam|Sweet potato|the New Zealand yam|Oxalis tuberosa{{!}}''Oxalis tuberosa''|elephant foot yam|Amorphophallus paeoniifolius{{!}}''Amorphophallus paeoniifolius''}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}} [[File:Yams species called Parkistan. The size is for eating but smaller sizes can be cultivated.jpg|thumb|Unknown yam variety, most likely of the ''alata'' species.]] [[File:YamsatBrixtonMarket.jpg|thumb|White yams at a retail market in [[Brixton]], England, 2004]] '''Yam''' be the common name wey people dey call some plants inside the Dioscorea family (wey be Dioscoreaceae). Some of the plants for that group get edible tubers, but others fit be poisonous. Yams be perennial herb vines wey originally come from Africa, Asia, and the Americas. People dey grow dem mainly for the starchy tubers wey dem dey chop. These tubers too dey called "yams", and dem get plenty different types because of the many varieties and related species. == Ein Description == Yam be monocot plant wey relate to lilies den grasses. E be strong herbaceous vine wey dey grow every year from one tuber.<ref name=":0">[https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/19293 "''Dioscorea alata'' (white yam)"]. [[:en:Centre_for_Agriculture_and_Bioscience_International|Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International]]. 2016. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> Dem know about 870 different types of yam <ref name=":0" />. Some of dem people dey grow well well because of the edible tuber, but others like D. communis be poisonous. Yam plants fit grow reach 15 meters (50 feet) long and dem body fit high between 7 to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches). <ref name=":0" /> == Ein Etymology == The name ''"yam"'' come from the Portuguese word "inhame" or Canarian Spanish "ñame", wey both come from Fula language, one of the [[West Africa|West African]] [[Languages wey dey Ghana|languages]] wey people dey use during trading time.<ref>[https://www.etymonline.com/word/yam "Yam"]. ''[[:en:Online_Etymology_Dictionary|Online Etymology Dictionary]]''. [[:en:Douglas_Harper|Douglas Harper]]. 2017. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> == Ein Uses == {{Multiple image | direction = horizontal | total_width = 330 | image1 = Kiekie yams.jpg | caption1 = [[Tonga]] | alt1 = [[Tonga]]n farmer showing off his prize yams | image2 = Fufuprep.jpg | caption2 = [[Pounded yam|Pounding yam]], [[Democratic Republic of Congo|DR Congo]] | alt2 = Young women preparing [[pounded yam]] (which includes mashed and pounded yam flour) in the [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]. }} === Africa === You for chop African yams only after you cook am, because dem get some natural things insyd wey fit make person sick if dem chop am raw. For West den Central Africa, the common ways people dey take cook yam be say dem go boil am, fry am, or roast am.<ref>Nweke, Felix; Aidoo, Robert; Okoye, Benjamin (July 2013). [https://web.archive.org/web/20181122052052/https://agriknowledge.org/downloads/6969z081q "Yam Consumption Patterns in West Africa"]. Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Archived from the original on 22 November 2018. Retrieved 5 December 2017.</ref> For Akan people inside Ghana, dem dey boil yam then mash am with palm oil to make one dish wey dem dey call eto — e be similar to how people dey prepare matoke with plantain. Dem dey serve eto mostly with eggs. Dem fit also pound the boiled yam using mortar and pestle to make one thick starchy food wey dem dey call iyan (pounded yam). People dey chop am with traditional soups like egusi or palm nut soup.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sam |first=Christopher |date=2021-05-01 |title=Food and culture: A case study of Ghana's Etor/Otor (Recipe Included) |url=https://www.theafricandream.net/food-and-culture-a-case-study-of-ghanas-etor-otor-recipe-included/ |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=TheAfricanDream |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Mavis |first=Meals by |date=2022-01-01 |title=Yam Eto (Ghanaian Mashed Yams) |url=https://mealsbymavis.com/yam-eto-mashed-ghanaian-yams/ |access-date=2025-06-30 |website=Meals by Mavis |language=en-US}}</ref> == References == <references /> [[Category:Africa]] [[Category:Ghana]] [[Category:Festivals insyd Ghana]] cv342hi8b7kajcp675f1xs6hwtaxvkw 0 18158 67314 2025-06-30T10:30:06Z Domatieha 3228 DIS ARTICLE BI WHAT A DEY CREATE 67314 wikitext text/x-wiki de b7wqvr6x8c717uq5b7105ow1scilhfw 67316 67314 2025-06-30T10:43:20Z Domatieha 3228 67316 wikitext text/x-wiki de140 Nigerians wey dey suffer for Sudan for long don finally come back home thanks to IOM wey dey support dem for di Voluntary Humanitarian Return (VHR). Di flight wey carry dem – di first one since di wahala start for Sudan – land for Mallam Aminu Kano International Airport on 27 February, wey Nigerian Government people welcome di returnees. Among dem, 64 na women, 36 na pikins, and 4 be small babies wey below 12 months, plus some people wey get health wahala. After dem return, each of dem receive post arrival help, from counsellin, medical care – like mental health and psychosocial support, and help for di journey to where dem go stay. IOM and dem partners go still make sure say dem fit settle down well with extra support based on wetin each person need. "After di war, we find ourselves outside, no house, no food. E no easy, and di wahala be say, no hope because di war no gree end," na wetin Bashir, one of di returnees talk. "We dey thankful say we don come back home," e add. Since di war for Sudan burst for 2023, plenty pipo wey pass 12 million don gree waka from dia homes go dey stay for other parts or find refuge for neighbouring countries. Plenty of dem na migrants too, wey include third country nationals wey be circular workers, students and professionals wey don make Sudan diir home. As di war dey happen, IOM don dey work close with embassies and consular offices from different countries to coordinate protection, help and access to services for di stranded migrants. "Migrants wey don pass through or dey live for Sudan since di conflict start don find dem self stranded as di humanitarian situation dey worsen for di country. Plenty don lose everything—documents, homes, and belongings. For many, Voluntary Humanitarian Return na di best option to safe journey . jzqbcfiq4vsa3h2vzce9hvutcf2who0